Canadian Historic Sites: Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History No. 19

Yukon Transportation: A History

by Gordon Bennett

Endnotes

Introduction

1 See W.A. Mackintosh, "Economic Factors in Canadian History," Canadian Historical Review, Vol. 4 (March 1923), pp. 12-25; Harold Adams Innis, "Transportation as a Factor in Canadian Economic History," in M.Q. Innis, comp., Essays in Canadian Economic History (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1956), p. 62; M. Watkins, "A Staple Theory of Economic Growth," in W.T. Easterbrook and M.H. Watkins, eds., Approaches to Canadian Economic History, a Selection of Essays (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1967), p. 55, and W.T. Jackman, Economics of Transportation (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1926), p. 9 for the relationship between transportation and staple production.

2 "Transportation is a must, first to discover the ore bodies, then to bring in the equipment to develop them, and finally to take out the minerals" (R.G. Bucksar, "The Frontiers Recede, a Brief History ot Transportation in the Canadian Northwest," North, Vol. 8 [Nov.-Dec. 1961], pp. 22-3); "Transportation is one of the keys to the future development of the Canadian Northwest" (J.L. Robinson, "Water Transportation in the Canadian Northwest," Canadian Geographical Journal, Vol. 31 [Nov. 1945], p. 237); "The development of a region can obviously not proceed faster than transportation facilities will permit" (H.W. Hewetson, "Transportation in the Canadian North," Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol. 11 [Aug. 1945], p. 450); "L'exploitation minière dans une telle région est actuellement conditionée par l'état des communications et des transports . . . . Le plus grave problème qu'ont à affronter ceux qui s'intérssent au développement économique du Grand-Nord, et celui du transport . . . . En somme, la mise en valeur des immenses territoires du Nord se ramène à une question de transport et de transport à des pris abordables" (G. Gardner, "Quelques aspects de la mise en valeur du Grand-Nord," L'Actualité Economique, Vol. 32 [Jan.-Mar. 1957], pp. 581, 585).

3 R.A.J. Phillips, Canada's North (Toronto; Macmillan, 1967), p. 181.

4 Harold Adams Innis, "Transportation in the Canadian Economy," in M.Q. Innis, comp., op. cit., p. 220.

The Pattern Emerges

1 Findings of Dr. R.S. MacNeish, Senior Archaeologist, National Museum of Man, Ottawa. See Whitehorse Star, Tourist ed., Summer 1970, p. 8.

2 Robert C. Kirk, Twelve Months in Klondike (London: Heinemann, 1899), pp. 229-31.

3 W.H. Dall, The Yukon Territory. The Narrative of W.H. Dall, Leader of the Expedition to Alaska in 1866-1868 (London: Downey, 1898), pp. 166-7; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 239-40.

4 Authorities differ as to how far the Russians penetrated. L.J. Burpee concluded that "some time after the building of Fort Yukon, Russian traders ascended the river to Nuklukayet on the west bank, a few miles below the mouth of the Tanana" (Alexander Hunter Murray, Journal of the Yukon 1847-48, ed. L.J. Burpee [Ottawa: King's Printer, 1910], p. 7).

5 See Morgan B. Sherwood, ed., Alaska and its History (Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1967), pp. 3-158.

6 G.W. Rowley, "Settlement and Transportation in the Canadian North," Arctic, Vol. 7, Nos. 3 and 4 (1954), p. 336.

7 Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Report on an Exploration in the Yukon District, N. W. T. and Adjacent Portion of British Columbia, 1887, by George M. Dawson; With Extracts relating to the Yukon District from Report on an Exploration in the Yukon and Mackenzie Basins, 1887-88, by R.G. McConnell (Ottawa; Queen's Printer, 1898) (hereafter cited as Dawson Report), p. 346.

8 James Weppler, Yukon, Early History; A Community of Men, Manuscript Report Series No. 9 (Ottawa: Parks Canada, 1969), p. 8.

9 C. Parnell, "Campbell of the Yukon — Pt. I," The Beaver, Outfit 273 (June 1942), p. 4.

10 Alexander Murray, op. cit., pp. 8-9; William Ogilvie, Early Days on the Yukon and the Story of its Gold Finds (Ottawa: Thorburn & Abbott, 1913) (hereafter cited as Early Days), p. 23; Alexander Murray, op. cit., p. 2.

11 Alexander Murray, loc. cit.

12 Campbell to Chief Factor Donald Ross, en route down the Mackenzie, 30 Aug. 1851, cited in J.P. Kirk and C. Parnell, "Campbell of the Yukon — Pt. III," The Beaver, Outfit 273 (Dec. 1942), p. 24. Murray anticipated the discovery in 1848 but never set out to prove it. See Alexander Murray, op. cit., p. 75.

13 James Weppler, op. cit., p. 9; Alexander Murray, op. cit., p. 9. The discovery led to the abandonment of Forts Frances and Pelly Banks. Fort Selkirk was destroyed in 1852 and never rebuilt (Canada. Public Archives [hereafter cited as PAC), RG15, B1a, Vol. 72, tel. 61861, T. Kains to E. Deville, Victoria, 20 Nov. 1886).

14 The United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867. The Hudson's Bay Company was forced to give up Fort Yukon in 1869 because it was in American territory, a fact that had been known to the Company from the date of the fort's construction. The expulsion effectively terminated the Hudson's Bay Company's presence in the Yukon although the Company did not abandon its interests in the region until 1889 (see Norbert Macdonald, "Seattle, Vancouver and the Klondike," Canadian Historical Review, Vol. 49 [Sept. 1968), p. 237).

15 Harold Adams Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada. An Introduction to Canadian Economic History, rev. ed. (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1967) (hereafter cited as Fur Trade), p. 324.

16 Ibid., p. 298.

17 Alexander Murray, op. cit., p. 93n (Burpee quotes the statement).

18 Beaver and marten alone were purchased by the Hudson's Bay Company (Harold Adams Innis, Fur Trade, p. 325).

19 R.G. Bucksar, op. cit., pp. 17-8.

20 W.H. Dall, op. cit., pp. 165-6, 170,191. See also diagrams in ibid., p. 190; E. Tappan Adney, The Klondike Stampede of 1897-1898 (Fairfield, Wash.: Ye Galleon Press, 1968) (hereafter cited as Klondike), p. 224.

21 When not in use the boats were "well covered with small trees and brush to shelter them from the sun and weather." In addition to local timber, roots were sometimes used in their construction (see Alexander Murray, op. cit., pp. 98, 67).

22 Recent scholarship has tended to revise this view (see Richard E. Welch, Jr., "American Public Opinion and the Purchase of Russian America," in Morgan B. Sherwood, op. cit., pp. 273-90).

23 J. Goldstein, "The Living Thread: A History of River Transportation in the Yukon Territory," Manuscript on file, National Historic Parks and Sites Branch, Parks Canada (Ottawa, n.d.), p. 14; L.D. Kitchener, Flag over the North (Seattle: Superior Publishing Co., 1954), pp. 14, 34.

24 This innovation antedated the inauguration of steam service to Edmonton by a full nine years (J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p. 238).

25 Ibid., p. 239; J. Goldstein, op. cit., p. 13.

26 W.H. Dall, op. cit., p. 7.

27 William Ogilvie, Early Days, pp. 69, 75-6; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement and the Mining Frontier (Toronto; Macmillan, 1936) (hereafter cited as Settlement), p. 182; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 82. The term "lower river" denotes that section of the Yukon River between Dawson and Saint Michael.

28 PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 72, fol. 61861, Memorandum, G.M. Dawson, Ottawa, 4 Dec. 1886; ibid., Wm. Ogilvie to minister of the Interior, Boundary Line, Yukon River, 27 Feb. 1888.

29 Harold Adams Innis, "An Introduction to Canadian Economic Studies," in M.Q. Innis, op. cit., p. 163; W.T. Easterbrook and H.G.J. Aitken, Canadian Economic History (Toronto: Macmillan, 1956), pp. 337-8.

30 Leroy N. McQuesten, Recollections of Leroy N. (Jack) McQuesten of Life in the Yukon, 1871-1885, copied from the original in the possession of the Yukon Order of Pioneers, June 1959, pp. 3, 9; William Ogilvie, Early Days, pp. 95-6.

31 Pierre Berton, Klondike, the Life and Death of the Last Great Gold Rush (Toronto; McClelland and Stewart, 1958), p. 14.

32 J.R. Lotz, "On the Trail of '98," Seattle Post Intelligencer, Pictorial Review, 31 May 1964, p. 10. The Chilkats were a Tlinkit tribe.

33 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 7; some writers maintain that Edward Bean was the first white man to cross the Chilkoot (see Roy Minter, "An Historical Sketch of the Yukon Territory," in Whitehorse Chamber of Commerce and Yukon Chamber of Mines. Yukon Northern Resource Conference, 2nd, Yukon's Resources: To-day and Tomorrow [Whitehorse, 1966) (hereafter cited as YNRC-2), p. 10).

34 A.C. Hinton and P.H. Godsell, The Yukon (Toronto; Ryerson Press, 1954), p. 31; United States. Department of The Interior. National Park Service, Proposed Klondike Gold Rush National Historic Park: Historic Resource Study, by Edwin C. Bearss (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1970) (hereafter cited as USDINPS), pp. 6-7; Joseph Ladue, Klondyke Facts, Being a Complete Guide Book to the Great Gold Regions of the Yukon and Klondyke and the North West Territories (Montreal: Lovell, 1897) (hereafter cited as Klondyke Facts), p. 15.

35 R.G. Woodall has noted that "for the last 1,250 feet of the climb all goods had to be packed on men's backs. Then the horses were fastened in a rope sling and led up the trail on a long rope until they lost their footing, when all the men available hauled them as they lay up to the summit. They were then blindfolded and backed over the edge and slid down the other side 400 feet to Crater Lake" (R.G. Woodall, The Postal History of Yukon Territory [Dorset, England: R.G. Woodall, n.d.), Ch. 3, p. 2).

36 As one observer wrote, "as for bringing in animals I think it a useless undertaking. The Indians are peaceable both in and outside — the outside Indians packing in for 6¢ to 9¢ per ld. 30 miles" (PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 72, fol. 61861, James Winn to ?, Juneau, 24 March 1883).

37 Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 15-6.

38 See PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 72, fol. 61861, T. Kains to E. Deville, Victoria, Nov. 1886; William Ogilvie, Early Days, p. 40.

39 Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Dawson Report.

40 William Ogilvie, The Klondike Official Guide. Canada's Great Gold Field, the Yukon District (Toronto: Hunter, Rose, 1898) (hereafter cited as Official Guide), p. 28.

41 PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 72, fol. 61861, Dawson to White, Ottawa, 12 Dec. 1887. Winslow has written incorrectly that William Moore cut a trail over the White Pass in 1887 (Kathryn Winslow, Big Pan-out [New York: Norton, 1951), p. 125).

42 USDINPS, pp. 81, 31-2.

43 Ibid., p. 33.

44 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 182; William Ogilvie, Early Days, p. 79.

45 E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 273.

46 William Ogilvie, Early Days, pp. 68, 80-1.

47 Ibid., p. 90; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 8; PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 72, fol. 61861, Extract of letter from Frederick W. Harte, Natal Station, Yukon River [1873].

48 See Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 211-3.

49 R.G. Bucksar, op. cit., p. 18.

50 A. Shortt and A.G. Doughty, eds., Canada and Its Provinces: A History of the Canadian People and their Institutions, by One Hundred Associates (Toronto; Publishers Association of Canada, 1914), Vol. 22, p. 618.

51 Copy of clipping from The Alaska Weekly, 4 Aug. 1939, in V.A.B. Faulkner and A. Baird, "The Yukon," Manuscript on file, National Historic Parks and Sites Branch, Parks Canada (Ottawa, n.d.); Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 175-6, 208-9; by 1894 a horse packing service had been organized by J.J. Healy between Dyea and Sheep Camp (William Ogilvie, Early Days, p. 153).

52 Generally the sternwheelers made one trip each from Saint Michael during the season. Freight rates averaged $150 a ton (PAC, RG15, C2, Vol. 15, fol. 1549, Surveyor General, memorandum, "Exploration of roads to the Yukon," 20 Apr. 1897). In addition to the coastal service provided by the Pacific Coast Steamship Company (see Norbert Macdonald, op. cit., p. 236), both the Alaska Commercial Company and its rival, the North American Transportation and Trading Company, operated vessels on the West Coast run. In 1886 the Alaska Commercial Company ran two ocean steamers, the St. Paul, rated at 680 tons, and the Duro, rated at 400 tons (see PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 72, fol. 61861, T. Kains to E. Deville, Victoria, 20 Nov. 1886).

The Great Stampede

1 Mark Sullivan, The Turn of the Century, Vol. 1 of Our Times: The United States 1900-1925, quoted in Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 101.

2 "Dispatch from Forty Mile, Yukon River, N.W.T., August 17, 1896," quoted in Whitehorse Star, 10 Aug. 1970, p. 7.

3 See Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 96-136. Tappan Adney, correspondent for Harpers Weekly and probably the most acute contemporary observer of the Klondike phenomenon, attributed the size of the stampede to the publicity accorded the discovery. "Nowadays," he wrote, "the news is carried by the telegraph and newspaper to all parts of the world, whereas formerly the excitement was all local, and had died away before word of it reached the rest of the world" (E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 68); R.A.J. Phillips, op. cit., p. 91.

4 There were a number of variations; the Peace-Liard-Pelly route, originally used by the Hudson's Bay Company in the early 1840s until Robert Campbell discovered that the Pelly and Yukon were on the same watercourse, and the Gravel or Keele River route, via the Mackenzie, Keele and Stewart rivers (see E.J. Corp, "The Trail of '98 and the Gravel [Keele] River Route," Arctic Circular, Vol. 11 [March 1959], p.36).

Prince Albert and Saskatoon also vied for the Klondike trade (see William Ogilvie, Official Guide, p. 99 and PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 236, fol. 464229, T. Copland to the minister of the Interior, Saskatoon, 26 Feb. 1898).

In September 1897 the dominion government commissioned a North-West Mounted Police detachment under Inspector J.D. Moodie to report on the feasibility of a wagon road over the Peace-Liard-Pelly route (see Canada. Parliament, Sessional Papers, No. 15, 1899, Part II).

5 W.D. MacBride, "A Brief History of the White Pass and Yukon Route and the "Trails of '98'" (Whitehorse: Indian and Northern Affairs Library, 1945) (hereafter cited as "Brief History"), p. 2. The route was also known as the "Overland Trail" or the "Back Door Route" (F. Walker, "Overland Trail to the Klondike," Alberta Historical Review, Vol. 7 [Winter 1959], p. 1).

6 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 231.

7 Ibid., pp. 231-2, 243.

8 PAC, RG15, C2, Vol. 15, fol. 1564, Surveyor General, memorandum re: Stikine Road to Yukon, 16 Aug. 1897.

9 See W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 1.

10 David Robert Morrison, "The Politics of the Yukon Territory; 1898-1908" (MA thesis, Univ. of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 1964), p. 30.

11 PAC, RG15, C2, Vol. 15, fol. 1549, Surveyor General, memorandum "Exploration of roads to the Yukon," 20 Apr. 1897.

12 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 228; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 196. In late 1897 a syndicate headed by Lord Charles Montagu, H.M. Kersey and C.H. MacKay agreed to build either a wagon road or a railroad. A month later the syndicate withdrew its offer to build a railroad and its wagon road proposal was rejected (David Robert Morrison, op. cit., pp. 29-30).

13 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 196.

14 PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 233, fol. 462325, John Eyre to J.G. Colmer, Walreddon Manor, Tevistock [England], 29 Jan. 1898. Other concessions to the contractors were that royalties on gold found on the land grants were to be taxed at the rate of one per cent, as compared to the ten per cent paid by operators in the Klondike; that the contractors were to be given a free hand in assessing tolls, and that the railroad was to enjoy a monopoly for five years (E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, pp. 384-5); Canada. Parliament. House of Commons Debates, 1898, passim.

15 W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 1; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 228; Walter Hamilton, The Yukon Story. A Sourdough's Record of Goldrush Days and Yukon Progress from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (Vancouver; Mitchell Press, 1964), p. 87. As a result of the Senate's action, the government was ordered to pay damages of $327,000 to Mackenzie and Mann (David Robert Morrison, op. cit., p. 31). Although the railroad scheme was abandoned, some 600 stampeders used the Stikine route (see Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 196; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 1; PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 233, fol. 462325, John Eyre to J.G. Colmer, Walreddon Manor, Tevistock, 29 Jan. 1898).

16 The Alaska Commercial Company, the North American Transportation and Trading Company and the Pacific Coast Steamship Company.

17 Martha Louise Black, My Seventy Years, by Mrs. George Black as told to Elizabeth Bailey Price (London; Nelson, 1938), p. 95.

18 No accurate figures exist as to the number of sternwheelers on the lower river during the summer of 1898. Harrington Emerson gives the total as 110, another observer 88, of which 30 never reached Dawson, Kathryn Winslow notes 34 and Pierre Berton 60 (Harrington Emerson, "The Engineer and the Roads to the Gold Fields," The Engineering Magazine, Vol. 17 [1899], pp. 759-60, cited in USDINPS, p. 123; "Transportation Past and Present in Alaska," Alaska Magazine and Canadian Yukoner, Vol. 1 [March 1900], p. 10; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 84; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 307).

19 J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p.239.

20 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p.215.

21 Arthur Treadwell Walden, A Dog-Puncher on the Yukon (Montreal; Carrier, 1928), p. 86.

22 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 215.

23 J.S. Webb, "The River Trip to the Klondike," in Alaska; Sundry Pamphlets, n.p. Alaska: Sundry Pamphlets is a miscellaneous compilation of articles prepared by the Indian and Northern Affairs departmental library, n.p., n.d.

24 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 215.

25 A major factor dissuading stampeders from travelling the lower river route was cost. This was reinforced by the rumour that transportation companies on the lower river would not carry supplies that had been purchased on the West Coast, as the selling of outfits was an important part of their operations. This stipulation was, however, seldom if ever enforced. According to Robert Kirk a few stampeders moved their outfits up-river from Saint Michael by canoe, although this form of ingress never became popular (see Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 85; Joseph Ladue, "Life in the Klondike Gold Fields. Personal Observations of the Founder of Dawson," recorded by J. Lincoln Steffens in Alaska: Sundry Pamphlets, n.p.; Roy Minter, special assistant to the president, White Pass and Yukon Corporation, personal interview, Vancouver, 1 Aug. 1970 [hereafter cited as pers. com.]; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 85).

26 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 193.

27 The others were the Stikine River route, the Port Valdez, Alaska route (see Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 211-8 and Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 87), the Taku Inlet route (see Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 87; PAC, RG15, C2, Vol. 15, fol. 1549, William Ogilvie to W.F. King, Ottawa, 26 April 1895), and the Dalton Trail. The Dalton Trail, which ran from Pyramid Harbor (now Haines, Alaska) to a point below Rink Rapids on the Yukon River, was completed by Jack Dalton in 1896. Dalton charged a toll of $250 for the use of his trail which he collected from those who took animals over it. Those who travelled on foot were given free access. In the summer of 1898, 1,000 cattle were driven over the trail to Dawson. Although the trail was a good one, many avoided it because it was 350 miles overland. After sternwheelers were introduced above Five Finger Rapids the Dalton Trail was abandoned (see W.D. MacBride, "The Story of the Dalton Trail," no title of publication given. Information obtained from a reproduction possessed by A. Rettalick, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 196; Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 371-2; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 2; PAC, RG15, C2, Vol. 15, fol. 1549, W.F. King to A.M. Burgess, Ottawa, 17 March 1897; L. Harrington, "Yukon's Wilderness Roads," Canadian Geographical Journal, Vol. 65 [Aug. 1962], p. 68; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 87). There is some dispute concerning the terminus of the Dalton Trail. MacBride designates Rink Rapids (W.D. MacBride, "The Story of the Dalton Trail," n.p.), others Fort Selkirk (see PAC, RG15, C2, Vol. 15, fol. 1549, King to Burgess, Ottawa, 17 March 1897).

28 William Ogilvie, Early Days, p. 153.

29 E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 91.

30 Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 103; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 246.

31 Finnegan's Point, Canyon City, Pleasant Camp, Sheep Camp, Stone House and the Scales (see Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 247-9). For descriptions of Sheep Camp, the most notable of the stopping-off points, see Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 103; Samuel Steele, Forty Years in Canada; Reminiscences of the Great North-West, with some Account of his Service in South Africa . . ., ed. Mollie Glenn Niblett, intro. J.G. Colmer (Toronto; McClelland Goodchild, Stewart, 1918), p. 296.

32 Samuel Steele, op. cit., p. 294; J.R. Lotz, op. cit., p. 12; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 251; T.A. Rickard, Through the Yukon and Alaska (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press, 1909), pp. 149-50.

33 Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 254-5; J.R. Lotz, op. cit., p. 11; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 2; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 187, n 23.

34 W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 2. The tramway also eliminated the packers' practice of breaking contracts at the foot of the summit and increasing their rates to a dollar per pound (Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 249).

35 Pierre Berton (op. cit., p. 245) estimates the total as 22,000.

36 Joseph Ladue, Klondyke Facts, p. 21; Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 99; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 118.

37 Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 250-1.

38 Ibid., pp. 165-6; J.R. Lotz, op. cit., p. 11.

39 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 246, 251-2; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp.

37-8; Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 102. See E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 94 for a description of Indian packing.

40 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 153; William Ogilvie, Early Days, p. 41.

41 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 39; Samuel Graves, On the "White Pass" Pay-roll (Chicago; privately printed, 1908), p. 7.

42 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 36-7

43 Of the 3,800 pack horses registered by the United States Customs, it is estimated that all but 30 either died or were killed (PAC, MG30, Al9, Archie Shiels, "A Short History of Transportation To and Within the Territory of Alaska, 1867-1908," copy of typescript in PAC, pp. 1-2); Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 157; T.A. Rickard, op. cit., pp. 137-8; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 3; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 187, n 23; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., pp. 87-8.

44 Many of those who took the Chilkoot Trail built their boats at the head of Lindeman Lake.

45 Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 114; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 196.

46 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 65; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 196.

47 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 64-5.

48 Ibid., pp. 61-2.

49 Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 115; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 227.

50 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 193. Over 150 boats were destroyed on this section of the river (ibid.).

51 Ibid., p. 192; T.A. Rickard, op. cit., p. 171.

52 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 192; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 75; T.A. Rickard, op. cit., p. 171; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 281; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 3. Ogilvie wrote that only three or four of the tram wagons were drawn by horses, the rest by hand (William Ogilvie, Early Days, p. 82). One of these wagons is now on display at the MacBride museum in Whitehorse; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 192, n 33; T.A. Rickard, op. cit., p. 171.

53 Between the break-up of ice in the spring of 1898 and October of the same year, 7,124 boats and some 28,000 people passed the Tagish Lake post of the North-West Mounted Police. This is the most accurate estimate of the number of people who stampeded to the Klondike via the Chilkoot and White Pass trails in the spring and summer of 1898 (Canada. Parliament, Report of the North-West Mounted Police [hereafter cited as CNWMP, Annual Report], 1898 [Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1899], Pt. III, pp. 38-9.

54 Quoted in Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., pp. 211-2.

55 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 151.

56 Kathryn Winslow. op. cit., p. 71 .

57 Ibid., pp. 62-3.

58 F. Walker, op. cit., pp. 1-2; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 152.

59 PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 234, fol. 462950, Nils Muller to minister of the Interior, Kristiania, Norway, 27 Jan. 1898.

60 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 207.

61 PAC, RG15, B1a, Vol. 231, fol. 441864, D.B. James to secretary [sic] of the Interior, San Francisco, 1 Sept. 1897.

62 Ibid., Lynwode Pereira to D.B. James, Ottawa, 17 Sept. 1897.

63 P.E. Roy, "Railways, Politicians and the Development of the City of Vancouver as a Metropolitan Centre, 1886-1929" (MA thesis, Univ. of Toronto, 1963), p. 80; "This Month in Northland History," Alaska Sportsman, Vol. 34 (Oct. 1968), pp. 16-7.

64 See W.T. Jennings, Report of Mr. W.T. Jennings, C.E., on Routes to the Yukon (Ottawa; Printed by order of Parliament, 1898).

65 Roy Minter, pers. com.

66 British Columbia (Province), Statutes, 60 Vict. cap. 49, 1897; Canada. Parliament, Statutes, 60-61 Vict. cap. 89, 1896-97.

67 See USDINPS, pp. 247-8.

68 E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 298; see also J.H.E. Secretan, To Klondyke and Back, a Journey down the Yukon from its Source to its Mouth (London: Hurst and Blackett, 1898), p. 1.

69 Roy Minter, pers. com.

70 Ibid.; "Transportation Past and Present in Alaska," Alaska Magazine and Canadian Yukoner, Vol. 1 (March 1900), p. 12.

71 USDINPS, pp. 247-8.

72 Roy Minter, pers. com.

73 Edward A. Herron, Alaska's Railroad Builder, Mike Heney (New York: Julian Messner, 1960), p. 85; N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, Canadian Railway Development (Toronto: Macmillan, 1933), p. 322.

74 S.H. Graves, op. cit., pp. 15-6.

75 Max David, "Railroad through a Snow-bound Hell," True Magazine (Jan. 1963), p. 102.

76 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 15.

77 The White Pass and Yukon Route, a general transportation company, was organized by Close Brothers of London on 30 July 1898. It included the Pacific and Arctic Railway and Navigation Company, the British Columbia-Yukon Railway Company and the British Yukon Mining, Trading and Transportation Company (also known as the British Yukon Railway Company) (R. Dorman, A Statutory History of Steam and Electric Railways of Canada [Ottawa: King's Printer, 1941], p. 635).

78 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 33.

79 Max David, op. cit., p. 103; S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 33; Roy Minter, pers. com.

80 N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, op. cit., pp. 322-3; W.D. MacBride, "The Story of the White Pass and Yukon Route" (hereafter cited as "Story"), p. 1.

81 C.E. Barger, "A Sturdy Little Line," Alaska Sportsman, Vol. 12 (Jan. 1946), p. 34; Roy Minter, pers. com.

82 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 16.

83 Ibid.

84 Ibid.; C.S. Price, "Thunder in the Mountains," Alaska Sportsman, Vol. 24 (April 1958), p. 23; W.D. MacBride, "Story," p. 2; Omer Lavallee, "The Road of Gold .... Some Historical Notes on the White Pass & Yukon Route," Canadian Railroad Historical Association, News Report No. 83 (Nov. 1957), p. 108; N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, op. cit., pp. 322-4.

85 W.D. MacBride, "The White Pass Route," The Beaver, Outfit 285 (Autumn 1954), p. 21; N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, op. cit., pp. 322-3.

86 S.H. Graves, op. cit., pp. 17-8.

87 W.D. MacBride, "Story," p. 1; ibid., "The White Pass Route," The Beaver, Outfit 285 (Autumn 1954), p. 21; ibid., "Brief History," p. 3; S.H. Graves, op. cit., pp. 18, 21; N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, op. cit., p. 323.

88 W.D. MacBride, "Story," p. 2; Omer Lavallee, op. cit., p. 108.

89 W.D. MacBride, "Story," p. 3; N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, op. cit., p. 324; Edward Herron, op. cit., p. 100.

90 S.H. Graves, op. cit., pp. 15, 19.

91 Cy Warman, "Building a Railroad into the Klondike," McClure's Magazine (March 1899) [sic], pp. 423-4, cited in USDINPS, pp. 170-2.

92 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 22.

93 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 307; see also n 18 above.

94 Canada. Parliament, Statutes, 60-61 Vict. cap. 89, 1896-97, p. 217; Omer Lavallee, op. cit., p. 105; Angelo Heilprin, Alaska and the Klondike, a Journey to the New Eldorado with Hints to the Traveller (London: Pearson, 1899), p. 22.

95 Adney and Berton contend that the first sternwheeler on the upper route was the Bellingham (E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 389; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 293). Winslow cites the A.J. Goddard and the J.H. Kilbourne (Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 138) while Kirk credits the Willie Irwin [sic] (Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 218). W.D. MacBride, a former employee of the White Pass and Yukon Route and an authority on the history of the river transport in the territory, confuses the issue further by writing variously that the Goddard, Irwin (or Irving) and Bellingham each enjoyed the distinction of having been the first sternwheelers on the upper river (W.D. MacBride, "Saga of Famed Packets and other Steamboats of Mighty Yukon River," Cariboo and Northwest Digest [Winter 1948-Spring 1949], pp. 98, 102, 114). The first steamboat, though not a sternwheeler, on the upper river was the Witch Hazel, a small propeller-driven craft that was hauled over the Chilkoot Pass and run down to Cudahy in 1895 (E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 390).

96 Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 127; J. Goldstein, op. cit., p. 21; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 3.

97 Angelo Heilprin, op. cit., pp. 12, 26.

98 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, pp. 192-3; E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 391.

99 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 189.

100 Ibid., pp. 190-1; F. King, "When Post-Dogs Brought the Mail," Canadian Mining Journal, Vol. 80 (Dec. 1959), pp. 57-8; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 212; E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 183.

101 F. King, op. cit., p. 57; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 194-5, 198; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 212; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., pp. 38-9.

102 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 196, 205-6; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 34; Encyclopedia Canadiana, s.v. "Dogs, Sled"; E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 213.

103 "A good Malamute will sell for 150 dollars, while it must be a very superior 'outside' dog that will bring more than 100 dollars" (Jeremiah Lynch, Three Years in the Klondike [London: Arnold, 1904], p. 141). See also E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, pp. 209-10; ibid., "The Sledge Dogs of the North," Outing, Vol. 39 (May 1901), p. 31.

104 W.H. Dall, op. cit., p. 30; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 193-4; F. King, op. cit., p. 58; Jeremiah Lynch, op. cit., p. 77.

105 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 192-4; Jeremiah Lynch, op. cit., pp. 141-2; F. King, op. cit., p.58; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 34.

106 E. Tappan Adney, "The Sledge Dogs of the North," Outing, Vol. 39 (May 1901), p. 133; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., pp. 35-7, 79; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 104; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 230.

107 If the driver were left-handed, the gee-pole was located on the right side.

108 Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., pp. 36-7.

109 E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 221.

110 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 191.

111 Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 35.

112 Ibid., p. 34. Two other types of dog harness merit description. The Hudson's Bay style harness, like the one described above, had a padded collar. The dogs were hitched in tandem. Unlike the tracing procedure described above, however, each dog was separately hitched to the sled. W.H. Dall considered the Hudson's Bay harness to be particularly well-suited for three dogs or less because this arrangement enabled all the drawing power to be brought to bear on the load. More than three dogs produced interminable tangling (see W.H. Dall, op. cit., p. 170). The Eskimo harness consisted of a piece of bearskin with three long slits through which the forelegs and the neck of the dog were passed. The trace passed under the dog's foreleg. Eskimos and Indians usually hitched their dogs in pairs (see E. Tappan Adney, "The Sledge Dogs of the North," Outing, Vol. 39 [May 1901], pp. 131-2; W.H. Dall, op. cit., pp. 166, 170).

113 Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 35.

114 Samuel Steele, op. cit., p. 301.

115 Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., pp. 36-8.

116 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 195; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., pp. 126-7.

117 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 199-201.

118 Ibid., p. 203; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 76.

119 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 200; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 81.

120 F. King, op. cit., p. 57.

121 Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., pp. 175-6, 208-9; E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 430; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 215; Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 169; Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 212. According to Kirk, supplies were hauled from Dawson to Eldorado for 10¢ a pound (Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 210).

122 Arthur Treadwell Walden, op. cit., p. 169; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 210.

123 Extract of letter from William Ogilvie, Cudahy, 25 June 1896, quoted in Joseph Ladue, Klondyke Facts, p. 168; E. Tappan Adney, Klondike, p. 430; Robert C. Kirk, op. cit., p. 210.

124 Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 153.

125 Angelo Heilprin. op. cit., p. 103; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 215, n 10; Jeremiah Lynch, op. cit., p. 143.

126 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 215.

127 Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 157; Angelo Heilprin, op. cit., pp. 124-5, 127; Extracts from the reports of Thomas Fawcett, D.T.S., gold commissioner for the Yukon District, in Canada. Department of the Interior (hereafter cited as CDI), Annual Report (1897), Pt. II, p. 78.

128 David Robert Morrison, op. cit., p. 63; Russell A. Bankson, The Klondike Nugget (Caldwell, Idaho: Claxton Printers, 1935), pp. 222-36.

129 CDI, Annual Report (1897), Pt. II, p. 78. Heilprin, for one, suggested that the government-imposed royalty on gold production and payments in lieu of representation work be applied to road improvements (Angelo Heilprin, op. cit., p. 130).

130 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory; Its History and Resources (Ottawa, 1907), pp. 99-100.

131 Angelo Heilprin, op. cit., pp. 128, 132.

132 Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 162; R. Oglesby, "The Klondike Gold Region. Account of a Six Month's Trip Through the Yukon Gold Fields," in Alaska: Sundry Pamphlets, n.p.

133 In 1899, labourers were paid 85¢ an hour, teams $25 a day. By 1900 these rates had declined to 80¢ and $20 respectively, still high by outside standards (CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, op. cit., p. 99).

134 John A. Bovey, "The Attitudes and Policies of the Federal Government toward Canada's Northern Territories, 1870-1930" (MA thesis, Univ. of British Columbia, 1967), pp. 84, 85, 89; David Robert Morrison, op. cit.

135 Until 1953 the North "had the lowest priority in the national scheme of things, even though it was a direct responsibility of the federal government" (J.R. Lotz, Northern Realities: The Future of Northern Development in Canada [Toronto: New Press, 1970], p. 12).

Recession and Recovery

1 Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 412-3.

2 When the writer was in Dawson and Whitehorse in August 1970, he noted a strong undercurrent of resentment toward Pierre Berton. This resentment stemmed from Berton's brief references to the post-Klondike phase of Yukon history. Many "insiders" felt that Berton had deliberately left the impression in Klondike that the Yukon almost ceased to exist after 1899. Like many such grievances, this one has only a partial basis in fact. See Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 410.

3 Laura Beatrice Berton, I Married the Klondike (Toronto; Little, Brown, 1954); Martha Louise Black, op. cit.; Walter Hamilton, op. cit.

4 Canada. Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Chronological Record of Canadian Mining Events from 1604 to 1947 and Historical Tables of the Mineral Production of Canada (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1948) (hereafter cited as CDBS 1948), p. 92.

5 David Robert Morrison, op. cit., p. 6.

6 CDI, Annual Report (1903-04), Pt. II, p. 3; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 261.

7 The year 1902 has been used as the terminal date of the gold rush period in this paper because after 1901 gold production, population and real estate values declined substantially, and many of the trading and transportation companies that had been formed during the gold rush withdrew from the territory.

8 Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 412.

9 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 3, fol. 492, F. Joslin to W.M. Morton, Dawson, 12 Jan. 1904; CDI, Annual Report (1903-04), Pt. VII, p. 31; J.R. Lotz, Northern Realities; The Future of Northern Development in Canada (Toronto: New Press, 1970), p. 48; CDI, Annual Report (1900-01), Pt. IX, p. 1; Pierre Berton, op. cit., p. 410.

10 The Klondike Nugget, 14 and 15 Aug. 1900, cited in David Robert Morrison, op. cit., p. 99.

11 Richard Mathews, The Yukon (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968), p. 302. "Until 1949 . . . the Lewes River . . . was considered by geographers to be a separated tributary; but it is now treated as part of the Yukon River as a whole" (Encyclopedia Canadiana, Vol. 6, quoted in J. Goldstein, op. cit., p. 4).

12 For the former see Canada. North Pacific Planning Project, Canada's New Northwest, a Study of the Present and Future Development of Mackenzie District of the Northwest Territories, Yukon Territory, and the Northern Parts of Alberta and British Columbia (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1947) (hereafter cited as CNPPP), p. 107; the latter, see Encyclopedia Canadiana, s.v. "Yukon Field Force" and J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p. 237.

13 CNPPP, p. 107. The annual precipitation in the Yukon varies between 9 and 13 inches (J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p. 250).

14 CNPPP, p. 108. This phenomenon has been explained as follows: "it is almost axiomatic that any river running into the Yukon, at least in the Yukon Territory from the south and west, is a glacial fed stream, and any tributary running into the river from the north or east is a snow fed stream from the Rockies" (PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6).

15 Canada. Parliament, Sessional Papers, 1901, No. 28a, cited in Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 213, n 3.

16 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 44.

17 CNPPP, p. 109.

18 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, S.E. Adair to Commissioner of the Yukon Territory, Dawson, 21 Nov. 1899.

19 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 41

20 Ibid.

21 Roy Minter, pers. com.; W.D. MacBride, "Story," p. 4.

22 S.H. Graves, op. cit., pp. 41, 45.

23 The three boats were the Dawson, McConnell and Ogilvie, which were renamed the Dawson, Whitehorse and Selkirk (PAC, Bill MacBride's Scrapbook, Acc. No. 1959-30 (microfilm), Wheeler to MacBride, Victoria, 27 Sept. 1949).

24 Omer Lavalle, op. cit., pp. 108-9; R. Dorman, op. cit., p. 635; PAC, MG30, A19, p. 19; see CNWMP, Annual Report (1900), Pt. III, p. 6.

25 CNWMP, Annual Report (1903), Pt. III, p. 32; see also PAC, Bill MacBride's Scrapbook, Acc. No. 1959-30 (microfilm), p. 69.

26 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, op. cit., p. 90; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, F.-X. Gosselin to A.L. Berdoe, Dawson, 7 March 1907.

27 L.D. Kitchener, op. cit., p. 46.

28 Ibid., pp. 46, 111, 112. The new owners retained the name North American Transportation and Trading Company. See also W. Taylor, "Transportation in the Yukon," Dawson Daily News, 21 July 1909, p. 15.

29 The larger boats on the lower river carried up to 600 tons and could push two barges, each barge having a 400-ton capacity (CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, op. cit., pp. 94-5; W. Taylor, op. cit., p. 15).

30 Langely to LeCappellain, 10 March 1904. From a collection of papers located in the attic of the old Dawson Hardware Company, Dawson, Yukon Territory.

31 Canadian Grocer, Vol. 18, No. 14 (1 April 1904), p. 42.

32 L.D. Kitchener, op. cit., pp. 114-5.

33 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 17, fol. 18052; ibid., commissioner of the Yukon Territory to F.W. Arnold, Dawson, 10 June 1907; CDI, Annual Report (1909), Pt. VI, p. 13; W. Taylor, op. cit., p. 15; CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory; Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1909), p. 144.

34 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 42. The author has found only one reference to the use of sidewheelers on the Yukon River and this on the lower route (see Joseph Ladue, "Life in the Klondike Gold Fields. Personal Observations of the Founder of Dawson," recorded by J. Lincoln Steffens, in Alaska: Sundry Pamphlets, n.p.).

35 S.H. Graves, op. cit., pp. 41-2.

36 See ibid., p. 42; PAC, Bill MacBride's Scrapbook, Acc. No. 1959-30 (microfilm); CNWMP, Annual Report (1902), Pt. III, p. 47.

37 S.H. Graves, op. cit., pp. 42, 49; W.D. MacBride, "Steamboat Round the Bend," Whitehorse Star, Tourist ed., June 1969, p. 5; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 30, G.A. Jeckell to J.H. Chamberlin, Dawson, 22 Dec. 1939.

38 Don Jones, employee of the White Pass and Yukon Corporation, personal interview, Whitehorse, 17 Aug. 1970; CNPPP, p. 113; CDI, Annual Report (1904-05), Pt. VII, p. 22.

39 W.D. MacBride, "Steamboat Round the Bend," Whitehorse Star, Tourist ed., June 1969, p. 5.

40 G.P. de T. Glazebrook, A History of Transportation in Canada (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1964), Vol. 1, p. 40.

41 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 43.

42 Ibid.

43 PAC, Bill MacBride's Scrapbook, Acc. No. 1958-30 (microfilm), p. 70; J. Goldstein, op. cit., p. 2.

44 S.H. Graves, op. cit., p. 44; J. Weppler, The S.S Klondike, the Last Sternwheeler, Manuscript Report Series No. 91 (Ottawa: Parks Canada, 1968) (hereafter cited as S.S. Klondike), p. 18.

45 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, W. Taylor to A. Wilson, Whitehorse, 6 July 1911.

46 CDI, Annual Report (1900), Pt. VIII, p. 3; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 192; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, G.B. Edwards to G.P. Mackenzie, 21 May 1924; J. Weppler, S.S. Klondike, p. 20.

47 CDI, Annual Report (1900), Pt. VIII, pp. 3-4; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, N. Tessier to A. Henderson, Ottawa, 31 Jan. 1910; ibid., superintendent of the White Pass and Yukon Route to A. Henderson, Whitehorse, 19 Oct. 1908; Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., p.213.

48 After 1905 the government entered into an arrangement with the British Yukon Navigation Company whereby the latter made necessary improvements. A similar arrangement was made with the Side Streams Navigation Company after 1914 (see PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, superintendent of the White Pass and Yukon Route to A. Henderson, Whitehorse, 19 Oct. 1908; ibid., G.A. Jeckell to A.G. Kingston).

49 This is not to suggest that either the Northern Navigation Company, successor to the Alaska Commercial Company, or the North American Transportation and Trading Company were comparable to those transportation companies whose sole purpose was to take advantage of the gold rush. Once the upper route gained control of traffic movement into and out of the Yukon, the Northern Navigation and North American Transportation and Trading companies found it progressively more difficult to compete and by 1914 they had withdrawn regular service to Dawson.

50 Edward Herron, op. cit., p. 135; Roy Minter, pers. com.; H.A. Cody, "The Gateway of the North," Canadian Magazine, Vol. 28 (Feb. 1907), p. 341; F.C. Wade, "A Business Talk on the Yukon," Canadian Magazine, Vol. 19 (May 1902), p. 27; G. Gardner, op. cit., p. 598; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 6.

51 N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, op. cit., pp. 325, 326; from a collection of untitled photographs, White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Vancouver.

52 W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 6.

53 Kenneth J. Rea, The Political Economy of the Canadian North: An Interpretation of the Course of Development in the Northern Territories of Canada to the Early 1960s (Toronto; Univ. of Toronto Press, 1968), p. 102; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 18, fol. 22044, A. Berdoe to A. Henderson, Skagway, 5 Sept. 1907; ibid., H. Dickson to A. Hawkins, Whitehorse, 19 Feb. 1918; Canada, Mineral Production, 1909, p. 39, cited in Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 102; CDI, Annual Report (1910), Pt. VI, p. 15.

54 CDI, Annual Report (1910), Pt. VI, p. 15; Omer Lavallee, op. cit., p. 109; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, George Black to Clyde Leavette, 14 Jan. 1913; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 6; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., pp. 103, 106. Production figures were recorded for 1919-20 and 1925-26. After 1927 production ceased (Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 106); Omer Lavallee, op. cit., p. 109. It was not until the Japanese-controlled New Imperial Mines began extractive operations in the 1960s that the Whitehorse copper belt was again exploited.

55 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 254.

56 R.G. Bucksar, op. cit., p. 18. No standard exists whereby the cost of rail transport can be compared with the cost of packers, horses or boats before 1901. The railroad was completed just prior to the collapse of the gold-rush economy, therefore any comparison based on rates charged by the White Pass and Yukon Route and those charged by other operators during the rush is more apparent than real.

57 Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 254; see PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 7, fol. 2104 for general background; David Robert Morrison, op. cit., p. 129; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 7, fol. 2104, Dawson Board of Trade Resolution, 9 Nov. 1905; ibid., Young Men's Liberal Club Resolution; ibid., commissioner of the Yukon Territory to minister of the Interior, Dawson, 22 Nov. 1905.

58 See Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, Table 8, p. 255; Roy Minter, pers. com.; Can. Ry. Cas. 402 and 13 Can. Ry. Cas. 527 cited in W.T. Jackman, op. cit., p. 261; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 256. The White Pass and Yukon Route did not come under the jurisdiction of the board until 1909 (D.A. MacGibbon, Railway Rates and the Canadian Railway Commission [Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1917], p. 101).

59 D.A. MacGibbon, op. cit., p. 102; CDI, Annual Report (1912), Pt. I, p. 63. The White Pass and Yukon Route argued that if the first order had been upheld, "the railway company would have been about $44,000 short of money to pay the interest on the outstanding bonds." The commissioners explained their reversal as follows: "while our duty to interfere and reduce rates in all proper cases is plain, surely it is equally clear that we should not require a reduction where the effect would be to prevent the investment earning a fair return" (D.A. MacGibbon, op. cit., pp. 103-4).

60 CDI, Annual Report (1912), Pt. I, p. 63.

61 Ibid.

62 "Klondike District" is used here to designate that geographical area defined by the Klondike River on the north, the Indian River on the south, the Yukon River on the west and Hunker and Dominion creeks on the east.

63 Eugene Murphy, "Railway Building and Operation in Yukon," Dawson Daily News, 21 July 1909, p. 23; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, "An Act to Incorporate the Klondike Mines Railway Company"; see ibid., C.C. Chataway to J.H. Ross, Dawson, 16 July 1901 for locational difficulties that confronted the promoters on Bonanza Creek; Dawson Hardware Company, Miner's Price List (March 1903), n.p.

64 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, Ogilvie to minister of the Interior, Dawson, 8 March 1901; Victoria A.B. Faulkner, personal interview, Whitehorse, 11 Aug. 1970; David Robert Morrison, op. cit., p. 63; Russell A. Bankson, op. cit., pp. 222-36.

65 Dawson Hardware Company, Miner's Price List (March 1903), n.p.; Eugene Murphy, op. cit., p. 23; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, C. Kekewick to W.W.B. McInnes, Dawson, 2 Oct. 1905; ibid., Davey and Tobin to W.W.B. McInnes, 12 Sept. 1905; ibid., C.C. Chataway to J.H. Ross, Dawson, 16 July 1901; ibid., Department of the Interior to W.W.B. McInnes, Ottawa, 29 Jan. 1906.

66 Omer Lavallee, op, cit., p. 110; Eugene Murphy, op. cit., p. 23; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 243; CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 98; H.W. Hewetson, op. cit., p. 454. There is some confusion concerning the completion date of the railway (see Alan Innes-Taylor, "Information on Old Locomotives at Dawson City, Yukon Territory," in the Dawson City Museum; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, C.W. MacPherson to secretary of the Railway Commission, Dawson, 22 Aug. 1906); PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, Petition from the Klondike Mines Railway Company to Commissioner and Council of the Yukon Territory; ibid., C.W. MacPherson to secretary of the Railway Commission, Dawson, 22 Aug. 1906.

67 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 98; Eugene Murphy, op. cit., p. 23. The railroad also hauled large amounts of cord wood (Alan Innes-Taylor, op. cit., n.p.); PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, Petition from the Klondike Mines Railway Company to Commissioner and Council of the Yukon Territory; ibid., "An Ordinance to Amend Chapter 5 of the Ordinances of the Yukon Territory 1906"; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, George Black to Clyde Leavette, 14 Jan. 1913; Alan Innes-Taylor, op. cit., n.p. In 1928 A.N.C. Treadgold, a pioneer in the conversion to large-scale, capital-intensive mining, acquired the property, but the railroad was not operated after 1914 (see PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, G.I. MacLean to A.N.C. Treadgold, Dawson, 30 July 1928).

68 CDBS 1948, p. 92.

69 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, W. Thibadeau to Z.T. Wood, Dawson, 2 Feb. 1903.

70 CNWMP, Annual Report (1902), Pt. III, p. 22.

71 "Roads in the Yukon," Dawson Daily News, 21 July 1909, p. 66.

72 CDI, Annual Report (1900), Pt. VIII, p. 3; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, Ogilvie to Dugas, Dawson, 29 May 1900; "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]), App. 2.

73 See PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, W. Thibadeau to Z.T. Wood, Dawson, 2 Feb. 1903; ibid., J. McNeill to gold commissioner, Dawson, 27 Nov. 1924; "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]), App. 2; CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 100; "Roads in the Yukon," Dawson Daily News, 21 July 1909, p. 66.

74 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]), App. 2; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, J. McNeill to G.P. Mackenzie, Dawson, 6 April 1920; ibid., W. Thibadeau to H.W. Newlands, Dawson, 28 April 1902; ibid., J. McNeill to G.P. Mackenzie, Dawson, 6 April 1920.

75 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]), App. 2.

76 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, "Yukon Territory: Road Mileage in the Yukon Territory as of March 31, 1912." Glazebrook writes that by "1913 there were some five hundred miles of good wagon roads radiating from Dawson and Whitehorse," exclusive of the Overland Trail (G.P. de T. Glazebrook, op. cit., Vol. 2, p. 246); Canada. Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources (hereafter cited as CDNANR), A Territorial Roads Policy for the Future (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1965), p. 11; see CDI, Annual Report (1913), Pt. I, p. 67.

77 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]), App. 2; Angelo Heilprin, op. cit., pp. 124-5. During the gold rush there was also a foot-bridge between Dawson and Klondike City (Kathryn Winslow, op. cit., p. 157); see "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]), App. 2 for a detailed description of these roads; CDI, Annual Report (1900-01), Pt IX, p. 5; Victoria Faulkner, pers. com., Whitehorse, 11 Aug. 1970.

78 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2 fol. 280, "Statement of Roads Built in the Yukon Territory, 1902."

79 See F.C. Rainey, "Alaskan Highway, an Engineering Epic," National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 83 (Feb. 1943), p. 149.

80 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]), App. 2; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 22, J. McNeill to A. Rousseau, Dawson, 2 Sept. 1930.

The cable was anchored to a deadman in West Dawson and to a tower in Dawson, which was anchored in turn to a deadman near Third Avenue. The tower was 121 ft. high and the distance between the tower and its deadman was 538 ft. The span over the river was approximately 1,300 ft. The dimensions of the scow used in 1931 were 60 ft. by 14 ft. It had an eight-to nine-ton capacity. The cable was 3/4 in. in diameter. The deadmen were equipped with soft metal sheaves to reduce wear.

The cable ferry was dismantled in 1945 because it constituted a hazard to aviation. Thereafter the river crossing was made in a ferry towed by a tunnel-type river launch (PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 8, G.A. Jeckell to acting officer commanding, North West Air Command, Edmonton, Dawson, 25 July 1944; ibid., J. McNeill telegram to L. Rogers, Dawson, 9 Jan. 1932; ibid., G.A. Jeckell to W.S. Lawson, Dawson, 24 March 1945; ibid., Parcel 22, J. McNeill to British Wire Company Ltd., Dawson, 6 Nov. 1931; ibid., RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, J.E. Gibben to R.A. Gibson, Dawson, 16 Jan. 1947).

81 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 100.

82 Roy Minter, "An Historical Sketch of the Yukon Territory," in YNRC 2, p. 13.

83 Information on Mayo and Whitehorse district roads has been culled from the annual statements on road construction prepared by the territorial government (PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280). Confusion results from the fact that the names of various settlements in the Yukon often bear the same names as creeks to which they are not contiguous and there is seldom any reference in the statements to which is which. Extrapolation is exacerbated, moreover, because mileage figures are frequently not given.

84 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 96.

85 Yukon Territory, Yukon Local Ordinances, Ordinance No. 12 of 1899; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 97; W.D. MacBride, "Yukon Stage" (W.P. & Y.R. No. 5, n.d.) (hereafter cited as "Stage"), p. 1; ibid., "Story," p. 4.

86 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 96; W.D. MacBride, "Stage," p. 1; ibid., "Yukon Stage Line," The Beaver, Outfit 284 (June 1953), p. 43; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, Thibadeau to J.H. Ross, Dawson, 6 June 1902; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 7.

87 W.D. MacBride, "Stage," pp. 1-2; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 102.

88 W.D. MacBride, "Yukon Stage Line," The Beaver, Outfit 284 (June 1953), p. 43; CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa; Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 96.

89 "The road north of the Pelly was changed to go via Scroggie and Blackhills, and later on when Mayo on the Stewart River became a busy mining camp the road branched off at Minto, crossed the Pelly below Mica Creek and joined the Stewart River at Crooked Creek. A branch ran from that point to Mayo, and the Dawson City road followed the Stewart River for some distance, thence up Slough Creek valley and down Flat Creek into Klondike valley" (W.D. MacBride, "Stage," p. 2).

90 Ibid., p. 1; Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., p. 38; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, W. Thibadeau to Z.T. Wood, Dawson, 2 Feb. 1903.

91 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 96; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 7; ibid., "Stage," p. 3; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 99; Edward McCourt, The Yukon and Northwest Territories (Toronto: Macmillan, 1969), p. 31.

92 Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 99; W.D. MacBride, "Yukon Stage Line," The Beaver, Outfit 284 (June 1953), p. 43.

93 W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 8; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 99; Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., p. 108.

94 Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., p. 108. In addition to its passenger service, the White Pass and Yukon Route operated special freight sleds between Whitehorse and Dawson (CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources [Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907], p. 97).

95 Martha Louise Black, op. cit., p. 217. "In the latter days of stage operation drivers did not leave a post if the temperature was colder than 41° below zero, but many times it would be 50 or 60 below before they reached the next post" (W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 8); H. Bostock, "A Sketch of Road Development in the Yukon Territory," Arctic Circular, Vol. 3 (Dec. 1950), p. 64.

96 Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., pp. 112-3. Bostock writes that the roadhouses on the Overland Trail were large two-storey log structures with sloping gable roofs covered with dirt to keep out the cold (H. Bostock, op. cit., p. 64).

97 In 1909 the territorial government constructed a series of roadhouses on the Mayo trail between Barlow and Mayo. They were 13 ft. by 24 ft. with an 8-ft. clear ceiling in the front and 6-ft. clear ceiling in the rear. The roofs consisted of poles covered with moss and dirt with two ridge poles for support. The roadhouses were partitioned in the centre and equipped with two bunks and a stove. The floor was made of poles. There was one window "put in the most convenient place." Each roadhouse was banked (PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 182, W.R. Edwards to commissioner, Dawson, 12 June 1909).

98 Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., p. 113; Yukon Territory, Yukon Local Ordinances, "An Ordinance Respecting Roadhouses 30 Aug. 1907.

99 CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 96; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 103.

100 W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," pp. 7-9; ibid., "Stage," p. 5; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., pp. 99, 101.

101 H.J. Woodside, Dawson As It Is," Canadian Magazine, Vol. 17 (Sept. 1901), p. 411.

102 R.A.J. Phillips, op. cit., p. 145; Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 215; CDI, Annual Report (1913), Pt. I, p. 66; ibid. (1914), Pt. I, p. 64; ibid. (1915), Pt. I, p. 58; Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 104. See CDI, Annual Report (1915), Pt. I, p. 58, for the effect of these improvements on mail service.

103 Between 1900 and 1914 (see PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, "Abstract Statement Showing Joint Expenditures of the Department of Interior and Yukon Government on Construction of Roads, 1902-1903"); PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 5, fol. 261.

104 CDI, Annual Report (1900), Pt. VIII, p. 3. A comparison of rates, 1899 and 1903, is revealing;

See CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa; Printing Bureau, 1907), p. 101. It must be emphasized that these statistics do not account for the extreme inflationary pressures which existed in 1899 and are useful only as an indication of the savings resulting from the construction of roads.

105 CDI, Annual Report (1902), Pt. VII, p. 3.

106 Canada. Parliament, Sessional Papers, 1902, No. 33a, cited in Harold Adams Innis, Settlement, p. 218.

107 Ibid.; Victoria Faulkner, pers. com.

108 CDI, Annual Report (1902-03), Pt. IV, p. 16.

Between the Wars

1 PAC, MG30, H43, George Black, "Striking Gold in Klondyke . . . Was My Greatest Hour," John Bull, 24 Dec. 1932.

2 Donald V. Smiley, ed., Rowell-Sirois Commission Report (Toronto; McClelland and Stewart, 1963), pp. 108-37.

3 CDBS 1948, p. 92.

4 CDI, Annual Report (1918-19), Pt. I, p. 28.

S Canada. Department of Mines. Mines Branch (hereafter cited as CDM), Summary Report (1916), p. 157.

6 Canada. Parliament. House of Commons, Debates, 20 June 1917, p. 2481; see also ibid., p. 2571.

7 Francis Cunynghame, Lost Trail, the Story of Klondike Gold and the Man who Fought for Control (London; Faber & Faber, 1953), p. 69.

8 PAC, RG85, Vol. 596, fol. 1190-2, Reid to Finnie, Dawson, 18 April 1925.

9 See Francis Cunynghame, op. cit., pp. 98-141.

10 CDBS 1948, p. 92. See also Canada. Dominion Bureau of Statistics, Report of Mineral Production of Canada (hereafter cited as CDBS, Mineral Production) (Ottawa; King's Printer, 1925), p. 157. In 1929 gold production accounted for only 29 per cent of the total value of mineral production in the Yukon (CDBS, Mineral Production [Ottawa: King's Printer, 1929], p. 69). A qualification is in order concerning the above comparison of Klondike and Mayo district production figures. CDBS 1948 does not provide a regional breakdown (within the Yukon) of production statistics. Since the Klondike district was the principal gold-producing region and the Mayo district the main silver-lead-producing region in the territory, the author has treated gold production as synonymous with the Klondike and silver-lead production as synonymous with the Mayo district.

11 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., Table 11.12, p. 438.

12 The disaster claimed 350 lives, 125 from Dawson alone. "There was hardly a family that was not hit in some way. The Yukon Gold Company, the Northern Commercial, the government service, the steamboats, all were shattered by the wreck of the Sophia. The crews of twelve river steamers, including three captains, went down with her . . . her passenger list had been a faithful cross-section of Dawson's polyglot population" (Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., pp. 165-6).

13 Ibid., pp. 162, 164, 180.

14 Ibid., p. 164; Dawson Daily News, 14 July 1916; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, G.B. Edwards to G.P. Mackenzie, Dawson, 19 Feb. 1918; Victoria Faulkner, pers. com.

15 Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., p. 163; CDBS 1948, p. 92. Some of the finest homes in Dawson are abandoned because it is too expensive to service them.

16 L. Wernecke, "Glaciation, Depth of Frost, and Ice Veins of Keno Hill and Vicinity, Yukon Territory," Engineering and Mining Journal, Vol. 133 (Jan. 1932), p. 38.

17 The first silver-lead deposit was discovered by H.W. McWhorter in 1906 at Galena Creek. In 1912 McWhorter's original claim was relocated as the Silver King claim and 59 tons of hand-sorted ore were shipped to the smelter at Trail, B.C. (A.E. Pike, Souvenir Brochure of the Yukon Territory [Mayo Branch CIM and united Keno Hill Mines, 1957], pp. 16-7); see also Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., pp. 103-4.

18 Keno Hill Ltd., established in 1920, and Treadwell Yukon Company Ltd., formed in 1921 (A.E. Pike, op. cit., pp. 17-8; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 106); H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory: Selected Field Reports of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1898-1933 (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1957) (hereafter cited as Yukon Territory), pp. 98-9; a number of smaller operators were engaged in lode mining in the Mayo district, but all were dependent in one way or another on the facilities provided by Treadwell Yukon; CDBS 1948, p. 92. Wages and salaries in the silver-lead industry exceeded those of the Klondike district as well (see CDBS, Mineral Production [Ottawa; King's Printer, 1927], p. 94, and ibid. [1929], p. 69).

19 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, G.B. Edwards to G.P. Mackenzie, Dawson, 19 Feb. 1918.

20 For example, the Whitehorse copper industry.

21 PAC, RG85, Public Archives Record Centre (hereafter cited as PARC), No. 426, J.S. McNeill, "Transportation in the Yukon Territory" [1923].

22 Quoted in Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 24.

23 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Yukon Development League, night letter to Arthur Meighen, Dawson, 31 March 1921; Canada. Parliament. House of Commons, Debates, 8 June 1920, p. 3281; ibid., 21 April 1922, p. 1034; ibid., 19 March 1914, p. 1833.

24 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Yukon Development League, night letter to Arthur Meighen, Dawson, 31 March 1921; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 58; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol.2, fol. 280, G.P. Mackenzie to deputy minister, Department of the Interior, Dawson, 28 April 1922.

25 Canada. Parliament. House of Commons, Debates, 21 April 1922, p. 1034.

26 Mayo-Keno Bulletin, 27 June 1924.

27 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]). Between 1898 and 1921 the government spent more than $3 million on territorial roads, bridges and ferries outside of Dawson and Whitehorse (PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, J. McNeill to gold commissioner, Dawson, 9 March 1922).

28 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 476, fol. 6148, G.I. MacLean to R.A. Gibson, Dawson, 17 Dec. 1928; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, "Summary of Road Work in the Mayo District, 1925"; PAC, RG85, Vol. 596, fol. 1190-2, Reid to Finnie, Dawson, 18 April 1925.

29 PAC, RG85, Vol. 596, fol. 961, Mayo Board of Trade, telegram to minister of the Interior, Mayo, 3 April 1922; ibid., Finnie, memorandum to W.W. Cory, 24 April 1922; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, "Memorandum re: Mayo District Expenditures, 1926-27."

30 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 426, J.S. McNeill, "Transportation in the Yukon Territory" [1923].

31 CDI, Mining Lands and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory: Its History and Resources (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1916), p. 196.

32 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 426, J.S. McNeill, "Transportation in the Yukon Territory" [1923].

33 H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, p. 401. Kenneth J. Rea has written erroneously (op. cit., p. 31) that "the cost of transporting ore from Mayo to San Francisco was approximately twenty-two dollars per ton, of which almost twenty dollars per ton was attributable to the first twenty miles it had to be moved from the mines to the river!"

34 H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, p. 401.

35 Canada. Parliament, Statutes, 11-12 Geo. V, cap. 67, 1921; RG15, E1a, Vol. 10, fol. 3306, H.B. Iseman, night letter to Arthur Meighen, Dawson, 12 Jan. 1921. See also PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Yukon Development League, night letter to Arthur Meighen, Dawson, 31 March 1921; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, "An Act to Incorporate The Mayo Valley Railway, Limited."

36 CDBS, Mineral Production (Ottawa; King's Printer, 1922), p. 167. See also H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, p. 509.

37 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 431, fol. 4071, "Sub-Mining Recorder's Report, Mayo, 1923"; ibid., PARC No. 426, J.S. McNeill, "Transportation in the Yukon Territory" [1923].

38 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 426, J.S. McNeill, "Transportation in the Yukon Territory" [1923]; ibid., PARC No. 431, fol. 4071, "Mining Recorder's Annual Report for the Mayo Mining District for the Year Ending February 28, 1927"; "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]).

39 The plant did not commence operation until January 1925.

40 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 431, fol. 4071, "Mining Recorder's Report, Mayo Mining District, 1924"; ibid., PARC No. 423, fol. 3729, Rowatt to deputy minister, Department of the Interior, Ottawa, March 1927.

41 CDBS, Mineral Production (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1924), p. 158. Concentration also permitted the mining of lower grade ore, thereby increasing the field of workable deposits (H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, p. 402).

42 Residents of the Mayo district petitioned the government to designate Mayo Landing as a port of entry as early as 1922 because of the delays in the delivery of supplies. The absence of a port of entry compelled Mayo companies to keep authorized agents in Whitehorse. These agents were unable to cope with a number of difficulties that arose such as outside shippers mailing invoices direct to the consignee at Mayo while goods were held over at Whitehorse. Without an invoice goods could not be cleared and forwarded (see PAC, RG85, PARC No. 423, fol. 3729, G. Coffey to O.S. Finnie, Dawson, 18 Dec. 1922).

43 Ibid., PARC No. 435, fol. 4402, Wernecke to MacLean, Wernecke, 27 Feb. 1930; between 1921 and 1930 Treadwell Yukon spent $157,518.80 on roads (ibid., Wernecke to Gillespie, Wernecke, 25 Feb. 1930); ibid., Wernecke to MacLean, Wernecke, 5 April 1930.

44 Ibid., memorandum to R.A. Gibson, Ottawa, 1 May 1930.

45 Laura Beatrice Berton, op. cit., p. 154.

46 Spring of 1921 (W.D. MacBride, "Story," p. 4); Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 97; Canada. Parliament. House of Commons, Debates, 28 April 1921, p. 2687; R.G. Woodall, op. cit., Ch. 15, p. 5.

47 CDI, Annual Report (1915), Pt. I, p. 58; CDI, Mining Lands and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory; Its History and Resources (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1916), p. 196.

48 Yukon Territory, Ordinances of the Yukon Territory, Ch. 9, 1911; ibid., Ch. 8, 1912; ibid., Ch. 11, 1913; H. Bostock, "A Sketch of Road Development in the Yukon Territory," Arctic Circular, Vol. 3 (Dec. 1950), p. 66.

49 The modification was done between 1922 and 1924 (PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, G.A. Jeckell to R.A. Gibson, Dawson, 22 July 1946 and CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory [Ottawa: King's Printer, 1926], p. 75).

50 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]).

51 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 426, J.S. McNeill, "Transportation in the Yukon Territory" [1923]; CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory (Ottawa; King's Printer, 1926), p. 75; Mayo-Keno Bulletin, 21 March 1924; PAC, MG30, H43, Martha Black, "No Place for a Cheechako," The Nomad (Aug. 1927), n.p.; Mayo-Keno Bulletin, 2 March 1925.

52 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]); CDI, The Yukon Territory; Its History and Resources (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1916), p. 195; CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1926), p. 75; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, G.A. Jeckell to R.A. Gibson, Dawson, 15 April 1946.

53 See Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., Table 4.8, p. 400; CDBS 1948, p. 92; quoted in H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, pp. 611-2.

54 H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, p. 612.

55 A.E. Pike, op. cit., p. 19; CDBS 1948, p. 92; H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, pp. 647-8.

56 J.R. Lotz, The Dawson Area: A Regional Monograph (Ottawa; Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Northern Co-ordination Research Centre, n.d.) (hereafter cited as Dawson), p. 83. The previous price was $30 an ounce.

57 Francis Cunynghame, op. cit., pp. 119-36.

S8 Excepting 1937 (see CDBS 1948, p. 92).

59 Canada. Department of Mines and Resources, Annual Report (Ottawa; King's Printer, 1937-38), p. 75.

60 PAC, MG30, H43; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 232.

61 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 420, fol. 3019; CDI, The Yukon Territory; Its History and Resources (Ottawa; Government Printing Bureau, 1909), p. 144; ibid. (Ottawa; King's Printer, 1916), p. 200; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 407, fol. 2454, Rowatt to Marchand, Ottawa, 22 April 1914; H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, pp. 382-3; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, G.B. Edwards to G.P. Mackenzie, Dawson, 19 Feb. 1918.

62 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 426, fol. 3787; CDI, Northwest Territories and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1926), p. 73; PAC, MG30, H46, H. Bostock, ed., "A History of Russell Creek, Yukon Territory," MS (taken from diaries, books and writings of Lt. Col. N.A.D. Armstrong).

63 The year 1921 has been selected because Treadwell Yukon was established in that year. Large-scale production as well began in 1921 (see CDBS 1948, p. 92).

64 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 406, fol. 2320, G.P. Mackenzie to O.S. Dawson, 18 Oct. 1923.

65 R. Minter to G. Bennett, Vancouver, 25 Oct. 1971.

66 CDBS, Mineral Production (Ottawa: King's Printer, 1921), p. 160.

67 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, Edwards to Mackenzie, Dawson, 19 Feb. 1918.

68 Canada. Department of Indian and Northern Affairs. National Historic Parks and Sites Branch, Correspondence file 10-163, C.J. Rogers to J. Weppler, Seattle, 13 Nov. 1967; H.S. Bostock, comp., Yukon Territory, p. 509.

69 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 426, fol. 3787, H. Wheeler to O.S. Finnie, Seattle, 21 Feb. 1924; J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p. 240; W.D. MacBride, "Trail of '98," Cariboo and Northwest Digest (Summer 1948), pp. 116-7.

70 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 426, fol. 3787, W.D. Gordon, "Transportation in Yukon Territory"; ibid., PARC No. 406, fol. 2320; ibid., RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, Edwards to Mackenzie, Dawson, 29 May 1924.

71 CDBS, The Canada Year Book . . . . (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1965), p. 6; J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p. 252.

72 CNPPP, p. 109; J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p. 252; J. Weppler, S.S. Klondike, p. 11.

73 J.L. Robinson, op. cit., p. 252; Canada. Department of Indian and Northern Affairs. National Historic Parks and Sites Branch, Correspondence file 10-163, P.C. Ferguson to J.D. Herbert, Whitehorse, 22 Jan. 1962; Gauvin's notes on sternwheelers, n.p.; PAC, RG85, PARC No, 426, fol. 3787, Wheeler to Finnie, Seattle, 21 Feb. 1924; ibid., PARC No. 467, fol. 5845, Gibson to Cory, Vancouver, 13 July 1928.

74 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, Edwards to Mackenzie, Dawson, 23 Sept. 1922; ibid., J.P. Forde to commissioner, Victoria, 21 Aug. 1922; ibid., "Sketch Plan of Stewart River, Y.T. Showing Improvement Work Done, 1922-23"; ibid., Edwards to Mackenzie, Dawson, 14 Nov. 1923.

75 Ibid., F. Carscallen to MacLean, Mayo, 30 Aug. 1929; ibid., McNeill to Maclean, Dawson, 9 Nov. 1929; CDI, Mining Lands and Yukon Branch, The Yukon Territory; Its History and Resources (Ottawa; King's Printer, 1916), p. 200; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, McNeill to Jeckell, Mayo, 31 March 1935.

76 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, Wheeler to Black, Skagway, 21 Aug. 1916.

77 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6; CNPPP, p. 109.

78 H. Wheeler to Godfrey L. Cabot, Inc., 31 Oct. 1942.

79 Don Jones, employee of the White Pass and Yukon Corporation, personal interview, Whitehorse, 17 Aug. 1970; Dawson News, 8 Oct. 1928; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 9, fol. 2941, Forde to Cameron, Victoria, 9 Nov. 1927.

80 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]).

81 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 467, fol. 5845, MacLean to Cory, Dawson, 20 June 1929; ibid., deputy minister, Department of Public Works to Cory, Ottawa, 20 July 1929.

82 "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]).

83 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 467, fol. 5845, Gibson to Cory, Vancouver, 13 July 1929.

84 J. Weppler, S.S. Klondike, p. 11.

85 Ibid., p. 12; Rogers to Weppler, Seattle, 13 Nov. 1967.

86 Gauvin's notes on sternwheelers; Rogers to Weppler, 13 Nov. 1967.

87 J. Weppler, S.S. Klondike, p. 12; Don Jones, pers. com.; Alan Fraser, former employee of the White Pass and Yukon Corporation, personal interview with J. Weppler, 21 Nov. 1967.

88 CDBS 1948, p. 92; Don Jones, pers. com.

89 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 435, fol. 4402; nevertheless plans for expansion and rebuilding of the labour camps in the Mayo district had to be postponed (ibid., Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 115); CNPPP, p. 111; John Gillis, radio script, "White Pass History," p. 10.

90 PAC, RG85, Acc. 69/180, Box No. 155711, fol. 6663, Rowatt to Finnie, Ottawa, 26 Nov. 1923.

91

Source PAC, RG85, PARC No. 476, fol. 6148, Wheeler to Finnie, Seattle, 8 Nov. 1928; CNPPP, p. 112.

92 J. Weppler, S.S. Klondike, pp. 9-10.

93 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 194. The following table compares the percentage cost of supplies and stock on hand (inventories) to total capital invested in three regional silver-lead-zinc industries. Source CDBS, Mineral Production (Ottawa; King's Printer, 1922), p. 168.

94 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 121; "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]); 1929 was a record production year in the lode mining industry (Yukon) (see CDBS 1948, p. 92); PAC, RG85, PARC No. 467, fol. 5845, MacLean to McKeand, Dawson, 7 Aug. 1929.

95 G.P. de T. Glazebrook, op. cit., Vol. 2, p. 258; J.A. Wilson, "The Expansion of Aviation into Arctic and Sub-Arctic Canada," Canadian Geographical Journal, Vol. 31 (Sept. 1950), pp. 130-41.

96 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 210.

97 F.H. Ellis, "Call It Re-Conquest," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 17 (May 1944), pp. 47-8, 94, 96.

98 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6.

99 F.H. Ellis, Canada's Flying Heritage (Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1954) (hereafter cited as Heritage), pp. 197-264; J.A. Wilson, op. cit., p. 134.

100 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Cruickshank to Reid, Keno, "4/9/26"; Whitehorse Star, 25 March 1938; F.H. Ellis, "The Flying Cruickshanks," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 27 (March 1954), pp. 26-7.

101 Jeanne Harbottle, "Bush Flying in the Yukon Territory," Whitehorse Star, Tourist ed., Summer 1970, p. 18; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 435, fol. 4402, Wernecke to Finnie, Mayo, 25 Feb. 1928; F.H. Ellis, Heritage, p. 242; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, G.A. Jeckell, "Notes on History of Air Service in the Yukon Territory"; Dawson Weekly News, 6 Dec. 1929; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 488, fol. 6670, MacLean to Finnie, Dawson, 23 May 1930; ibid., Binet, Carpenter, Finnegan, Ferrel, McKay, telegram to minister of the Interior, Mayo, 6 Nov. 1929; ibid., ? to Binet, Ottawa, 14 Dec. 1929.

102 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 38, MacLean to Finnie, Dawson, 7 May 1928.

103 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 476, fol. 6148, MacLean to Finnie, Dawson, 23 Oct. 1928; ibid., MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Desbarats to Finnie, Ottawa, 12 Oct. 1929; ibid., RG85, Acc. 69/180, Box No. 155711, fol. 6663; ibid., PARC No, 435, fol. 4402, Finnie, memorandum to Gibson, 28 Sept. 1929; ibid., Wernecke to Gillespie, Wernecke, 5 March 1930; ibid., MG30, H43.

104 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 435, fol. 4402, Wernecke to Finnie, Mayo, 25 Feb. 1928; ibid., MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, G.A. Jeckell, op. cit.; ibid., RG85, PARC No. 476, fol. 6148, MacLean to Finnie, Dawson, 23 Oct. 1928; Whitehorse Star, 25 March 1938; Dawson Weekly News, 12 Oct. 1928.

105 PAC, RG85, PARC No. 488, fol. 6670, MacLean to Finnie, Dawson, 23 May 1930; ibid., Finnie, memorandum to Gibson, 9 Nov. 1929; R.G. Woodall, op. cit., Ch. 18, p. 6; Jeanne Harbottle, op. cit., p. 18; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 435, fol. 4402, Wernecke to Finnie, 28 Feb. 1928; see also ibid., Finnie to Wilson, Ottawa, 2 April 1930.

106 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, G.A. Jeckell, op. cit.; ibid., Parcel 38, MacLean to Cory, Dawson, 11 Dec. 1928; ibid., Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, Mayo, 22 Nov. 1928.

107 CDI, Annual Report (1929-30), p. 155; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, Jeckell to Gibson, Dawson, 19 Nov. 1945; ibid., Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, Mayo, 22 Nov. 1928.

108 Jeanne Harbottle, op. cit., p. 19; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 476, fol. 6148, Narraway, memorandum to Gibson, Ottawa, 6 Nov. 1928.

109 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, 22 Nov. 1928; "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]); PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, Mayo, 4 Aug. 1928.

110 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, Mayo, 22 Nov. 1928; see also ibid., RG85, PARC No. 435, fol. 4402, Black to Stewart, Vancouver, 16 Sept. 1929.

111 Ibid., MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, Mayo, 27 Nov. 1928.

112 Jeanne Harbottle, op. cit., p. 19.

113 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, Wernecke, 21 Dec. 1929.

114 F.H. Ellis, "The Flying Cruickshanks," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 27 (March 1954), p. 26.

115 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, G.A. Jeckell, op. cit.; Jeanne Harbottle, op. cit., p. 18.

116 Whitehorse Star, 25 March 1938.

117 Richard Finnie, "Flying Beyond Sixty, Part III," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 12 (April 1939), pp. 24-5.

118 J.F. Grant, "North to the Yukon by Air," Canadian Geographical Journal, Vol. 15 (Aug. 1937), p. 75; Richard Finnie, op. cit., p. 25; CNPPP, p. 129.

119 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, "List of Airport and Emergency Landing Fields, Yukon Territory."

120 Ibid., Parcel 6.

121 Whitehorse Star, 25 March 1938.

122 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 22, fol. 33787.

123 F.H. Ellis, Heritage, p. 318.

124 Ibid., p. 242; F.H. Ellis, "The Flying Cruickshanks," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 27 (March 1954), p. 96.

125 Whitehorse Star, 25 March 1938; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 488, fol. 6670, Finnie, memorandum to Gibson, 9 Nov. 1929.

126 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 38, MacLean to Cory, Dawson, 11 Dec. 1928.

127 Ibid., Parcel 6, Wernecke to MacLean, Mayo, 22 Nov. 1928.

128 F.H. Ellis, Heritage, pp. 192, 322; Richard Finnie, op. cit., p. 24; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 24, fol. 34932, Jeckell to Clarke, Dawson, 7 July 1937; Daily Alaska Empire, Juneau, 3 May 1939; J.A. Wilson, op. cit., p. 138; W.D. MacBride, "Brief History," p. 9.

129 J.F. Grant, op. cit., p. 75.

130 CNPPP, p. 129.

131 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 1, fol. 20, Edwards to Mackenzie, Dawson, 19 Feb. 1918; "The Yukon Territory" (Ottawa [1928]); CNPPP, p. 112. Silver-lead production was at peak levels in 1928 and 1939, exceeded only by production in 1929 and 1937 (CDBS 1948, p. 92); Roy Minter, pers. com.

132 Walter Hamilton, op. cit., pp. 90-1; CNPPP, p. 112; N. Thompson and J.H. Edgar, op. cit., p. 324; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 467, fol. 5845, Gibson to Cory, Vancouver, 13 July 1928; Frank H. Brown, "Address," p. 3, in Whitehorse Chamber of Commerce and Yukon Chamber of Mines, Yukon Northern Resource Conference, 3rd, The Developing North (Whitehorse, 1969) (hereafter cited as YNRC-3).

133 Roy Minter, pers. com.; Financial Post, 1 Dec. 1951.

The Military Legacy

1 Canada. Parliament, Sessional Papers, No. 15, 1899, Pt. II, p. 3, Herchmer to Moodie, Regina, 27 Aug. 1897; ibid., p. 4, Moodie to Herchmer, Ottawa, 14 Jan. 1899; ibid., Herchmer to Moodie, Edmonton, 2 Sept. 1897.

2 Ibid., pp. 4-14, Moodie to Herchmer, Ottawa, 14 Jan. 1899. Frank Walker, who followed practically the same route as the Moodie expedition, wrote that Moodie "had a facility of quarelling with practically every guide that he had, and they left him shortly after their employ" (F. Walker, op. cit., p. 5).

3 Canada. Parliament, Sessional Papers, No. 15, 1899, Pt. II, p. 7, Moodie to Herchmer, Ottawa, 14 Jan. 1899; ibid., p. 11. See also W.C. Grennan, "The Highway to Alaska," RCMP Quarterly, Vol. 13 (April 1948), pp. 328-9; A.C. Hinton and P.H. Godsell, op. cit., p. 133; Pierre Berton, op. cit., pp. 237-8.

4 T. Morris Longstreth, The Silent Force: Scenes from the Life of the Mounted Police of Canada (New York; Century, 1927), pp. 257-9; W.C. Grennan, op. cit., pp. 329-30; A.C. Hinton and P.H. Godsell, op. cit., pp. 133-4; Canada. Parliament, Sessional Papers, No. 28, 1907, App. Q; ibid., 1908, Pt. I, pp. 154-6.

5 A.C. Hinton and P.H. Godsell, op. cit., p. 135; Canada. British Columbia-Yukon-Alaska Highway Commission, Preliminary Report on Proposed Highway Through British Columbia and the Yukon Territory to Alaska (Ottawa, 1940) (hereafter cited as Canada, Preliminary Report), Vol. 1, p. 1.

6 Canada, Preliminary Report, Vol. 1, pp. 1-5.

7 See PAC, MG30, H43, Citizens Committee to George Black, Dawson, 29 Aug. 1931; Canada, Preliminary Report, Vol. 1, p. 6.

8 Canada. Army Records, General Staff Memorandum, "U.S.A., Alaska Highway via British Columbia and Yukon," 11 Feb. 1937, quoted in James Eayrs, In Defence of Canada (Toronto; Univ. of Toronto Press, 1964—), Vol. 2, Appeasement and Rearmament, p. 178.

9 Quoted in James Eayrs, op. cit., p. 178.

10 Quoted in R.G. Bucksar, op. cit., p. 21.

11 Canada, Preliminary Report, Vol. 1, pp. 6-10, 50-3.

12 Lawrence J. Burpee, "A Road to Alaska," Canadian Geographical Journal, Vol. 21 (Nov. 1940), pp. 259-60.

13 Canada, Preliminary Report, Vol. 1, p. 15.

14 Canada. British Columbia-Yukon-Alaska Highway Commission, Report on Proposed Highway through British Columbia and the Yukon Territory to Alaska (Ottawa; n.p., 1941), Vol. 1, pp. 53, 51.

15 Maurice Matloff, ed., American Military History (Washington, D.C.: USGPO, 1969), pp. 423-4.

16 Edward McCourt, op. cit., p. 1.

17 A.C. Hinton and P.H. Godsell, op. cit., p. 140.

18 S.C. Ells, "Alaska Highway," Canadian Geographical Journal, Vol. 28 (March 1944), p. 110.

19 CNPPP, p. 115; S.C. Ells, op. cit., p. 105; Walter Hamilton, op. cit. p. 173; see also R.G. Bucksar, op. cit., p. 22.

20 CNPPP, p. 127; F.H. Ellis, Heritage, p. 192; J.A. Wilson, "It Cost $58,000,000 Plus," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 17 (May 1944), p. 92.

21 J.A. Wilson, "It Cost $58,000,000 Plus," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 17 (May 1944), p. 92; CNPPP, p. 127; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 212.

22 CNPPP, p. 115.

23 Canada. Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers, Maintenance and Construction on the Alaska Highway: A History of the Northwest Highway Maintenance Establishment, rev. ed. (n.p.: Northwest Highway System [1964]) (hereafter cited as Maintenance and Construction), p. 4.

24 CNPPP, p. 115; Edward McCourt, op. cit., p. 14.

25 F.C. Rainey, op. cit., p. 143; H.W. Richardson, "Alcan — America's Glory Road; Part III — Construction Tactics," Engineering News-Record (14 Jan. 1943), p. 131; CNPPP, p. 116.

26 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, fol. 466-3, "General Information Concerning the Alaska Highway — Canadian Section"; R.G. Bucksar, op. cit., p. 22; Harold Griffin, Alaska and the Canadian Northwest. Our Newest Frontier (New York; Norton, 1944), p. 110; R.G. Bucksar, Geography of Northwestern Anglo-America with Emphasis upon Arctic British Columbia, the Yukon Territory, and Southeastern Alaska; A Text for Geography 310 and 583 (West Chester: publ. by the author, 1965) (hereafter cited as Geography), p. 326; F.C. Rainey, op. cit., p. 148.

27 Canada. Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers, Maintenance and Construction, p. 5; see also Clarence L. Sturdevant, "U.S. Army's First Official Story of the Alaska Highway," Roads and Bridges, Vol. 81 (March 1943), pp. 64-6; F.C. Rainey, op. cit., p. 154; C.S. Landis, "Blasting Deep Rock Cuts along the Alaskan Highway," Explosives Engineer, Vol. 9 (March-April 1945), p. 56.

28 Douglas Coe, Road to Alaska: The Story of the Alaska Highway (New York: Messner, 1943), pp. 128-9.

29 Ibid., pp. 122, 159.

30 See ibid., pp. 134, 138-9, 147.

31 Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 176.

32 F.C. Rainey, op. cit., p. 143.

33 H.W. Richardson, op. cit., p. 131; F.C. Bishop, The Alaska Highway (Washington, D.C.: Northwest Service Command [1944]), p. 6 and frontispiece.

34 C.E. Barger, "Railroad in Miniature," Alaska Life, Vol. 8 (Aug. 1945), p. 40.

35 H.W. Love, "The Northwest Highway System," Engineering Journal, Vol. 37 (June 1954), p. 672; Canada. Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers, Maintenance and Construction, p. 3.

36 Richard L. Neuberger, "Railroad Saga of the North," Alaska Life, Vol. 7 (Feb. 1944), p. 4.

37 F.C. Bishop, op. cit., p. 10.

38 C.E. Barger, "Railroad in Miniature," Alaska Life, Vol. 8 (Feb. 1944), p. 40.

39 C.E. Barger, "A Sturdy Little Line," Alaska Sportsman, Vol. 12 (Jan. 1946), pp. 11, 33; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 7, "Lease of the Facilities of the White Pass and Yukon Railway Company. War Department, Contract No. W-2789-TC-460"; C.E. Barger, "Railroad in Miniature," Alaska Life, Vol. 8 (Aug. 1945), p. 40.

40 C.E. Barger, "A Sturdy Little Line," Alaska Sportsman, Vol. 12 (Jan. 1946), p. 10; R.L. Neuberger, op. cit., p. 7.

41 Encyclopedia Canadiana, s.v. "Canol Project"; W.C. Grennan, op. cit., p. 324; Harold Griffin, op. cit., pp. 64-8, 70, 74; N. Gritzuk, "The Role of Transportation in the Development of the North," Western Miner and Oil Review, Vol. 32 (April 1959), p. 30; H.W. Love, op. cit., p. 672.

42 F.C. Bishop, op. cit., pp. 12, 14; A.C. Hinton and P.H. Godsell, op. cit., p. 149; S.C. Ells, op. cit., p. 111.

43 C.S. Landis, op. cit., p. 56; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 18, fol. 1.

44 Canada. Bureau of Transportation Economics, Economic Report on the Alaska Highway (Ottawa, 1948), pp. 13-4; H.W. Love, op. cit., p. 673; H.W. Richardson, "Finishing the Alaska Highway," Engineering News-Record (27 Jan. 1944), pp. 97, 101; Harold Griffin, op. cit., pp. 106, 114.

45 Edward McCourt, op. cit., p. 12.

46 H.W. Love, op. cit., pp. 675-6; G.A. Williams, "Winter-Maintenance Problems on the Alaska Highway," Roads and Bridges, Vol. 81 (Nov. 1943), pp. 27-30, 58.

47 A.B. Yates, "Maintaining the Alaska Highway," Royal Engineers Journal, n.s., Vol. 50 (March 1954), pp. 86-9; Canada. Bureau of Transportation Economics, op. cit., p. 14.

48 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 24, fol. 35402, Canada. Parliament. House of Commons, Debates, 3 June 1942, quoted in PAC, MG30, H43.

49 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 24, fol. 35402, Jeckell to Gibson, Vancouver, 5 March 1943; ibid, LeCapelain to Gibson, Whitehorse, 25 Feb. 1943, see also PAC, RG85, PARC No. 466, fol. 5794.

50 PAC, Bill MacBride's Scrapbook, Acc. No. 1959-30 (microfilm), Wheeler to MacBride, Victoria, 27 Sept. 1949.

51 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 18, fol. 1, U.S. Embassy, Ottawa, to Gibson, 9 April 1947; J.A. Wilson, "It Cost $58,000,000 Plus," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 17 (May 1944), p. 46; W.C. Grennan, op. cit., p. 324; H.W. Love, op. cit., p. 672; L. Harrington, op. cit., p. 63; CNPPP, pp. 119, 129: PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, Gibson to Gibben, Ottawa, 4 Nov. 1947; Encyclopedia Canadiana, s.v. "Canol Project."

52 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, fol. 466-3; S.C. Ells, op. cit., p. 114; W.D. MacBride, "Story," p. 4.

53 S.C. Ells, op. cit., p. 110.

54 Canada. Bureau of Transportation Economics, op. cit., p. 15; W.C. Grennan, op. cit., p. 331; E.R. Weick, "Yukon Transportation: Past, Present, Future," North, Vol. 14 (Sept.-Oct. 1967), p. 25; Canada. Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers, Maintenance and Construction, p. 1. The Northwest Highway System included the Watson Lake airport road as well as the Canadian sections of the Alaska Highway and the Haines lateral (D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy: Its Potential for Growth and Continuity. A Report Prepared for the Department of Indian Affairs and the Government of the Yukon Territory [Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1968] [hereafter cited as The Yukon Economy], Vol. 7: Reference Study on Transportation: Transportation Services of the Yukon Territory, by J.I. Guest and T.D. Heaver, p. 14).

55 PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, fol. 466-3, Martin, telegram to O.C., RCMP, Whitehorse, Ottawa, 18 Feb. 1948. See also W.C. Grennan, op. cit., pp. 332-4 for administration of travel restrictions.

56 A.C. Hinton and P.H. Godsell, op. cit., pp. 143-4; Clarence L. Sturdevant, op. cit., p. 32.

57 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 233; Canada. Bureau of Transportation Economics, op. cit., p. 4; CNPPP, p. 115; D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy, Vol. 7, p. 6.

58 Canada. Bureau of Transportation Economics, op. cit., pp. 34, 36, 44, 46.

59 The Bureau of Transportation Economics estimated net annual maintenance costs at $3,020,000 in 1948 (ibid., pp. 69-70). Actual maintenance costs rose from $110,107 in 1946 to $2,085,309 in 1951 (Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 233).

60 Canada. Bureau of Transportation Economics, op. cit., p. 26; D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy, Vol. 7, Table 8, p. 24; quoted in E.R. Weick, op. cit., p. 26.

61 E.R. Weick, op. cit., p. 26; D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy, Vol. 7, pp. 24, 35; N. Gritzuk, op. cit., p. 36.

62 D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy, Vol. 1: Final Report, by D.W. Carr and F.W. Anderson, pp. 214-28.

63 See Charles B. West, "Paving of Alaska Highway Key to Yukon Tourist Potential," in YNRC-2; R. Minter, "The Development of the Yukon's Tourist Industry," in YNRC-3.

64 H.W. Love, op. cit., p. 677.

65 CDNANR, Improvement Program for the Alaska Highway; An Analysis of Economic Benefits, Prepared by Stanford Research Institute for the Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1966), pp. II-4, II-5, VI-6; R.A.J. Phillips, op. cit.; p. 184.

66 J.R. Lotz, "The Yukon Pattern — Yesterday and Tomorrow," North, Vol. 13 (Jan.-Feb. 1966), p. 21; see R.A.J. Phillips, op. cit., p. 191 for Yukon reaction to transfer of highway from Northwest Highway System to the Department of Public Works in 1964; R.G. Bucksar, Geography, p. 28.

67 CDNANR, A Territorial Roads Policy for the Future (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1965), p. 10; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 234; CNPPP, p. 117; N. Gritzuk, op. cit., p. 28.

The Dawning of a New Era

1 Canada. Department of Mines and Resources, Annual Report (1938-39), p. 85; (1939-40), p. 73; (1940-41), p. 74; (1941-42), p. 57; (1942-43), p. 74; (1943-44), p. 76; (1944-45), p. 75; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, "List of Airport and Emergency Landing Fields in the Yukon Territory, 1 July 1941"; ibid., Parcel 6, "Old Logs of the W.P. and Y.R."; Roy Minter, pers. com.

2 CDBS, Canadian Mineral Statistics, 1886-1956; Mining Events, 1604-1956 (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1957) (hereafter cited as Mineral Statistics), pp. 65-6, 119; Yukon Consolidated Gold Corporation, president's address to annual meeting, 1942, n.p.; ibid., 1943.

3 CNPPP, p. 112.

4 A.E. Pike, op. cit., p. 19; see CDBS, Mineral Statistics, p. 120, and A.E. Pike, op. cit., p. 19; CNPPP, p. 112.

5 Canada. Parliament. House of Commons, Debates, 10 March 1947, p. 1207; PAC, MG22, Commissioner, Parcel 16, Jeckell to Gibson, Dawson, 19 Nov. 1945; ibid., Jeckell to Gibson, 16 April 1946.

6 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, Black to Crerar, Ottawa, 3 Aug. 1944; ibid., British Columbia and Yukon Chamber of Mines to Camsell, 12 March 1945; ibid., Black to Glen, Ottawa, 12 March 1946; A.E. Pike, op. cit., p. 20; PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, Buckle to Cocheran [1946]; ibid., Glen to Lee, Ottawa, 28 Jan. 1947.

7 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, Keenleyside to secretary of the Treasury Board, Ottawa, 15 Jan. 1948; A.E. Pike, op. cit., p. 20; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 467, fol. 5845, MacLean to McKeand, Dawson, 7 Aug. 1929; N. Gritzuk, op. cit., p.32; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 121; PAC, RG85, PARC No. 467, fol. 5845, Gibben to Gibson, Dawson, 15 Dec. 1947.

8 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, Keenleyside to secretary of the Treasury Board, Ottawa, 15 Jan. 1948; Canada. Department of Mines and Resources, Annual Report (1950-51), p. 82; L. Harrington, op. cit., p. 66; "Road Programme in Northern Canada," Arctic Circular, Vol. 11 (March 1959), p. 52; see also CDNANR, Annual Reports, 1955-63.

9 See CDBS, Mineral Statistics, p. 120.

10 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, Hume, memorandum to Gibson, 22 July 1949; A.E. Pike, op. cit., p. 20; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 138.

11 CDBS, Mineral Statistics, p. 120; Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., Table 4.8, p. 400.

12 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 253; PAC, RG85, Acc. 69/180, Box No. 155699, Rogers to Gibson, Whitehorse, 8 June 1949; Canada. Department of Resources and Development. Northern Administration, Yukon Territory: A Brief Description of Its History, Administration, Resources and Development (Ottawa, 1950), p. 20.

13 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, "Access Roads to Dawson City, Yukon Territory."

14 Ibid., Hit to Heeney, 12 Dec. 1946; ibid., Rogers to Gibson, Vancouver, 2 Dec. 1946; J.R. Lotz, Dawson, p. 19; Canada. Department of Mines and Resources, Annual Report (1950-51), p. 94.

15 CDNANR, Annual Report (1953-54), p. 119.

16 Ibid. (1954-55), p. 113; CDNANR, A Territorial Roads Policy for the Future (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1965), p. 9; G. Gardner, op. cit., p. 589.

17 PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 25, fol. 35538, Rogers to Gibson, Vancouver, 2 Dec. 1946; Frank H. Brown, op. cit., p. 3.

18 Frank H. Brown, op. cit., pp. 2-3.

19 Ibid., pp. 3-5; G. Gardner, op. cit., p. 598; Financial Post, 1 Dec. 1951.

20 Frank H. Brown, op. cit., p. 3; Roy Minter, pers. com.; G. Gardner, op. cit., pp. 598-9.

21 White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Report (1953), n.p.

22 Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 94; Frank H. Brown, op. cit., p. 6; White Pass Container Route News, July-Aug. 1968; "Winterized Locomotive is Match for Yukon Weather," Diesel Power (March 1957), p. 37; White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Report (1954), n.p.; D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy, Vol. 7, p. 9.

23 White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Report (1953), n.p.; Roy Minter, pers. com.

24 J. Weppler, S.S. Klondike, p. 22.

25 Ibid., pp. 26-7; W.D. MacBride, "Steamboat Round the Bend," Whitehorse Star, Tourist ed., June 1969, p. 5.

26 Yukon Archives, Daily Log, Steamer Klondike, 1955.

27 White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Report (1952), n.p.

28 Frank H. Brown, op. cit., p. 8.

29 "Did You Ever Wonder?" "A series of ads inserted in Whitehorse Star and Yukon Daily News, commencing first week of July 1968." Roy Minter's personal tile.

30 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., p. 207; White Pass Container Route News, 1 Sept. 1969; White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Diesels North [1972], p. 6.

31 John Gillis, op. cit., p. 14.

32 Walter Hamilton, op. cit., p. 94; N. Gritzuk, op. cit., p. 34; Foster Kemp, "The White Pass & Yukon Route," Canadian Railroad Historical Association News Report, No. 81 (Sept. 1957), p. 93.

33 White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Diesels North [1972], pp. 6-7; Frank H. Brown, op. cit., p. 9; White Pass Container Route News, 1 Sept. 1969; D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy, Vol. 7, pp. 9, 11.

34 Frank H. Brown, op. cit., passim; Roy Minter, pers. com.

35 White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Report (1968), n.p.; Frank H. Brown, op. cit., p. 8; R.A.J. Phillips, op. cit., p. 187; John Gillis, op. cit., p. 14.

36 Frank H. Brown, op. cit., p. 12; White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Reports, 1953, 1955, 1967.

37 Canada. Parliament. House of Commons, Debates, 8 Dec. 1953, pp. 697-8.

38 John Diefenbaker, "Notes," p. 1, in YNRC-3.

39 R.A.J. Phillips, op. cit., p. 186.

40 Kenneth J. Rea, op. cit., pp. 241-4.

41 See PAC, RG15, E1a, Vol. 2, fol. 280, "Abstract Statement Showing Joint Expenditure of the Department of the Interior and Yukon Government on Construction of Roads, 1902-1903"; ibid., Vol. 9, fol. 2941; CDI, Annual Report (1900), Pt. VII, pp. 3-4.

42 White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Report (1959), n.p.; H.W. Roozeboom, "Wind River Trail," The Beaver, Outfit 291 (Winter 1960), pp. 18-20; see also Walter Hamilton, op. cit., pp. 94-5.

43 White Pass and Yukon Corporation, Annual Report (1959), n.p.

44 See, for example, various issues of the Arctic and Northern Development Digest, 1969 to present.

45 G. Gardner, op. cit., p. 596; A. Collins, "High Flying Helicopters Aid Mapping in Yukon," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 24 (Jan. 1951), pp. 15-7; "Bush Flying Still Vital Activity Changes Character in Northwest," Canadian Aviation, Vol. 21 (Nov. 1948), p. 36; White Pass Container Route News, Dec. 1968.

46 See D.W. Carr and Associates, The Yukon Economy, Vol. 7, p. 38.