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Canadian Historic Sites: Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History No. 7
by Edward B. Jelks Artifact DescriptionsCeramics In order to have a comprehensive taxonomy for the classification of ceramics, it is necessary that the following factors be taken into account. I Observable characteristics
II Inferable characteristics
To the knowledge of the writer, a comprehensive taxonomy designed to take the foregoing factors into consideration does not exist in any form at present. Until one has been devised that is acceptable to most historical archaeologists, the problem of classifying and describing ceramic samples from historic archaeological sites will remain difficult. Faced with the necessity of classifying and describing such a sample, archaeologists at present must resort to individualistic, often whimsical, approaches. In treating the Signal Hill ceramics, a hierarchal system of criteria was applied as consistently as was practicable. The system is an attempt at an expedient compromise between the rigorous requirements of a scientific approach and the largely subjective classifications customarily employed by art historians in describing ceramics. The criteria, in order of priority, are as follows. I Criteria of paste A Porosity II Criteria of structure A Presence or absence of a glaze III Criteria of glaze A Opacity IV Criteria of decoration A Achromatic V Vessel form VI Inferential criteria Where appropriate, conjectures regarding method of manufacture, function, and historical context are given. Emphasis in this report, however, is on observable, descriptive attributes of the ceramics, not on criteria inferred from observed attributes. Valid inferences, in most instances, would require extensive comparative studies of data gathered from sources far beyond Signal Hill—studies that greatly exceed the scope of the present report. In classifying the Signal Hill ceramics (exclusive of clay pipes and marbles, which are treated separately), the entire collection of sherds was first sorted into two major groups, those with porous paste and those with nonporous paste. Each of those groups was split when possible into two divisions, opaque and translucent. Each of the latter was, in turn, subdivided into colour categories; and so on down the hierarchal scale. The following classification resulted. I Earthenware—all ceramics with porous paste. (The earthenware from Signal Hill all has an opaque body.) A Coloured earthenware—all earthenware with conspicuously coloured (including black) paste. 1. Unglazed 2. Glazed
B White earthenware—all the earthen ware with white or near-white paste. (The white earthenware from Signal Hill all has transparent glaze; none is free-slipped.) 1 Plain2 Decorated a Slip-decorated II Nonporous paste A Stoneware—nonporous ceramics with an opaque body. In many cases, the most specific categories given in the above outline were broken down further in the actual analysis on the basis of vessel shape, colour of decoration, or other pertinent criteria. The observant reader has already noted that despite the author's avowed intention of avoiding inferential criteria he has employed such terms as freehand painted, printed, and European porcelain—terms which reveal that the classifier has not restricted himself to observable attributes of the specimens, but at times has resorted to inferences about technique of manufacture and place of origin. Until a more scientifically consistent ceramic taxonomy has been developed, such comprises between art and science are, practically speaking, unavoidable. Earthenware Earthenware has been defined above as ceramics with porous paste. That sounds at first blush like a precise definition; but on reflection it is patent that porosity is a quality of degree, not of kind. All ceramics are porous (that is, they will absorb water to some degree): it is just that some are more porous than others. Some ceramic bodies will visibly soak up water like a sponge, while others—porcelain for example—will absorb only infinitesimal amounts of water. And there is a continuous gradation in ceramic wares from one extreme of the porosity scale to the other. How, then, should porosity be measured? What is the proper porosity range for earthenware? For stoneware? For porcelain? What tests should be applied to determine whether a particular specimen falls in one class or another? These are questions for which neither archaeology nor art history has yet provided acceptable answers, and no answers will be sought here. Yet some decision had to be made if the Signal Hill ceramics were to be classified on the basis of porosity. After considerable thought, it was finally decided to employ the rule of tongue: if a freshly broken sherd edge felt sticky to the tongue, it was classed as earthenware; if not, it was classed as nonporous—either stoneware or porcelain, depending on whether the body was opaque or translucent. (Opacity—or translucency if you prefer the reciprocal aspect of the same quality—is, of course, another quality of degree rather than of kind which poses the same quandary to the classifier as the question of porosity. But further comment on that problem will be deferred until the discussion of nonporous ceramics later in the report.) One feels compelled to speculate, too, on the possibility that human tongues may vary significantly in ceramic stickability. What variations may exist as a result of differences in diet, in race, in sex, or in age can be determined only through carefully controlled experimentation. Meantime, to meet the immediate demands of Signal Hill, the rule of tongue was invoked. But when one actually exercises the rule of tongue he discovers that the rule is not infallible: some sherds cling so tightly to the tongue that it is difficult to pull them loose without amputating a few taste buds in the process; some feel sticky but will not cling; others are right at the border of stickiness and might with justification be classed as either porous or nonporous, depending on the whim of the classifier. The Signal Hill earthenware was divided into two major classes: coloured and white. A number of subdivisions were recognized within each class. The test of colour applies to the paste only, without regard to any colour that might be in a glaze or in a slip. As in the case of porosity, colour is a matter of degree, and the problem of deciding where to draw the line between white and coloured pastes corresponds to the problem of deciding where porosity stops and nonporosity begins. Taking the easy way out and invoking the justification of expediency, the classifier simply put into the white group all the sherds that, subjectively, looked more white than not. As things came out, the category of white earthenware included specimens that many specialists would class as creamware and pearlware, as well as specimens with chalky white paste and perfectly lucid glaze. Coloured Earthenware Unglazed A few unglazed sherds were found, all having red, fine-textured paste. As nearly as could be told from the fragments, the complete vessels were all thrown jars. Two sherds (Fig. 66, a) have segments of incised lines on their exterior surfaces; the others are undecorated.
Glazed Free-slipped The few sherds in this category have red, fine-textured paste much like that of the unglazed pottery. The vessels represented by the sherds have their interior surfaces covered with white slip (Fig. 66, b-c) but not their exteriors. A yellowish transparent glaze was applied over the slip. On some vessels the glaze extended over part or all of the exterior surface, too; however, the exterior surfaces of most sherds are unglazed. A large rim sherd came from a pan that was approximately 14 in. in diameter. Other sherds apparently came from smaller jars. No decorative designs appear on any of the sherds. Unslipped Dark opaque glaze. The paste is brick red, dark grey, or cream. The glaze ranges from chocolate to black in hue. The glaze is glossy on most sherds, but grades off to matte on some. A small vial (Fig. 66, d) is thickly glazed on the inside but unglazed on the exterior except for the neck area. The only other vessel shapes surely represented in the small sample of sherds are small, deep jars, all or most of them wheel thrown. Except for several rim sherds having rows of tiny, raised (moulded) dots, there are no decorative designs. Light opaque glaze. A few sherds of earthenware have the soft, cream-coloured, fine-textured paste and the white to pale blue, opaque glaze that are characteristic of delft. The sherds are too few and too fragmentary for any vessel shapes to be recognized, but horizontal striations on several specimens indicate that they were thrown. Three sherds bear traces of hand-drawn lines in the pale cobalt blue decoration. Another has portions of two dark brown, handpainted letters—one either W or M, the other indistinguishable. Transparent glaze. Paste colours range from brick red and dark grey to cream and pale grey. One vase has bright blue paste. Paste texture is variable, from rough and grainy to fine and homogeneous. A few sherds are salt-glazed; the majority, however, are lead-glazed. Some of the lead glazes are almost crystal clear, but others are coloured amber, yellow, green, or brown. Most vessels were thrown, but some were moulded. Common shapes include deep jars, bottles, and a small, straight-sided beaker with a footed base of conspicuously smaller diameter than the mouth, a form which occurs much more commonly in stoneware than in earthenware. The only decorations appearing on this group of coloured earthenware are moulded geometric patterns and fluting on several vessels, a moulded effigy of Giuseppe Garibaldi on the blue vase mentioned above, a rim sherd bearing a horizontal row of freehand punctuations (Fig. 66, i), and designs executed in white or coloured slip. There are no painted designs either under or over the glaze. Fifteen sherds that appear to be from a single vessel (Fig. 66, e-f) were found at the east flat, Lady's Lookout. Evidently a narrow-mouthed, handled, thrown jug—perhaps for holding rum or some other kind of spirits—its exterior was salt-glazed, its interior sealed with a dark brown opaque lead glaze. Trailed slip decoration: Two sherds from the same vessel, found at the south flat of the Lady's Lookout area, have the same kind of red paste and yellowish glaze as the free-slipped sherds described above, However, their interior surfaces, instead of being completely covered with slip, are decorated with squiggles executed in trailed white slip. The sherds are too small for the over-all design to be made out. Banded slip decoration: The yellowish paste of this group of sherds (Fig. 67, e-f) is fine-grained and homogeneous in texture. The decorations are chiefly bands of white or coloured slip that were seemingly laid on while the vessel was turning in a lathe. The so-called mocha design, which resembles moss agate, is present on some specimens. Similar designs that occur on white earthenware are described later in the report. As with the white-paste variety, bowls appear to be the only vessel form present; the coloured-paste bowls, however, seem to have been somewhat larger as a rule than the white-paste ones. They also differ from the white-paste variety in the following ways.
a Blue is the most popular colour for the mocha design, although both black and brown occur also. b No examples of marbling occur. c The broad panels on which the mossy designs appear have a white-slipped instead of a coloured ground. d There are no impressed rim decorations. e Unslipped surfaces show up as yellow brown as that is the colour of the body. White Earthenware The majority of ceramics from Signal Hill is earthenware with white or near white paste. Both plain and decorated vessels are represented. All the vessels were lead-glazed on both interior and exterior surfaces. Plain A number of plain white earthenware sherds were found, some from completely plain vessels, others from plain areas of decorated vessels. Most of the plain vessels had a glaze with a yellowish cast that, in over-all effect, imparted a pale cream colour to the vessel. This falls into the class often labelled creamware but is lighter in colour than most so-called creamware observed by the writer. Plain sherds with a slightly blue-tinted glaze and others with crystal-clear glaze are present in the sample; some of both kinds are from undecorated vessels. Decorated Slip-decorated Slip-banded. Paste of this group is chalky white, and glaze is clear or faintly blue-tinted except as noted below. Vessel forms seem to be entirely bowls and cylindrical mugs, jars, or vases. Decorations (Fig. 68) are executed in coloured slip, or by incising, or by the unique process that produces the so-called mocha design.
The most common decoration consists of a broad coloured panel, usually one to three inches high, encircling the body, and several narrow, horizontal bands setting off the panel above and below. The panel is reddish brown, bright blue, tan, or light olive, and it may bear mossy (mocha) figures or marbled effects. The horizontal bands are dark brown or bright blue. In another form of decoration the body is covered with a series of horizontal bands, every second band broken into dashes. The colours that make up these decorations are embodied in thin elements of slip that underlie the clear glaze. In many instances depressions were imposed into the surface of the vessel body where bands were desired, and then the depressions were filled with coloured slip to produce the bands. This left the surface of the vessel (after decorating but before glazing) smooth and even all over. In other cases the bands of slip were laid directly on the smooth body surface so as to stand out in low relief. On some specimens a moulded geometric design runs in a band around the rim area. Rarely this kind of design is in relief (Fig. 68, g), but usually it is depressed in the surface of the vessel, in which case the depressions may be (a) filled flush with coloured slip (Fig. 68, f-g), or (b) glazed over without the addition of slip (Fig. 68, i-k). All sherds fitting the latter description have green transparent glaze covering the impressed design area, even though the rest of the vessel was covered with clear glaze. Painted Freehand. The paste is generally chalky white, but occasionally a specimen may show a faintly yellowish cast, The underglaze designs (Figs. 69, 70) run mostly to bold leafy branches and flowers; although there are also sherds with geometric patterns, a few oriental scenes, and an occasional bird figure. Border decorations consist of simple bands, crosshatched bands, or geometric figures of various kinds. Shades of blue, green, yellow, and red (especially purple-red) are the predominant colours. Judging from the sherds, the vessel shapes are chiefly small bowls, cups, and saucers. The decorations may be either on the exterior or the interior of a vessel, often on both.
A special kind of freehand-painted design, here termed edge-banded, consists of a coloured band on the lip, apparently applied while the vessel was turning in a lathe. The edge-banded sherds all have chalky white paste and a clear glaze that often shows a faint tinge of blue. The only shapes represented in the sample are plates and platters: there are no bowls, pitchers, cups, or saucers. The decoration consists of a blue, or occasionally green, band, usually 5 mm. to 15 mm. wide, running around the edge (Fig. 71, a-h). With rare exceptions there is also a series of shallow, closely spaced, radially aligned grooves moulded into the edge of the piece on its upper side. The grooves are generally of variable length on the same specimen, from 4 mm. or 5 mm. to perhaps 15 mm. long. The pigment applied around the edge flowed down the grooves, thus imparting a feathery appearance to the inner edge of the band. On the few smooth-surfaced, ungrooved sherds, the inner edge of the band was feathered by brushing to create an effect similar to that of the grooved specimens.
The edges of most examples are wavy; many also have what seems to be a small, stylized, leafy branch moulded at intervals into the band of decoration (Fig. 71, f). An occasional specimen has a more elaborate design. Approximately 85 per cent of the edge-banded sherds are bright blue; the balance is bright green. No other colours are present. The painted band occurs only on the upper side of the plate or platter, never on the underside. Stamped. The paste is chalky white, the glaze clear. The decorations (Fig. 71, i-k) evidently were applied by stamping with a cut-out sponge in the same way a rubber stamp is used to ink a design on paper. The stamped figures are leafy branches and geometric forms, and there is usually a single band along the lip of the vessel. Blue is the predominant colour, but dark brown, red, green, and purple occur also. Saucers and small bowls are the principal vessel forms. Printed. This group constitutes by far the most popular kind of decorated ceramics at Signal Hill. Chalky white paste and perfectly clear to bluish clear glaze characterize a vast majority of the specimens. A few, however, have cream-coloured paste and yellowish glaze, or both, and would be classed as creamware or Queensware by many. Designs on the latter are in overglaze black. Exclusive of the black-printed creamware, more than 90 per cent of the sherds bear designs that are executed in bright blue. There are three especially popular patterns: (1) the so-called willow design (Fig. 72, a-d); (2) ornate floral patterns (Figs. 72-75), and (3) scenes featuring landscapes, buildings, people, and animals (Figs. 74-76). The willow and floral designs tend to be deep blue; the scenes are usually pale blue. A few sherds of "flow blue" were found.
Other than blue, printed colours are green, red, pink, purple, and several shades of brown. Almost all of the designs done in those colours are floral, the willow and other scenic patterns being quite scarce. The printed vessels came in a wide variety of shapes and sizes: plates, platters, saucers, cups, pitchers, and bowls of different sizes. It is noteworthy, however, that the willow pattern, with rare exceptions, appears only on plates and platters. Apparently some matched sets of dinnerware were used on Signal Hill; a set perhaps including plates, cups, saucers, serving bowls, platters, and pitchers, all decorated with the same printed floral or scenic design. Textured. The paste is chalky white, the glaze clear. The decoration (Fig. 77, a-b) is a kind of speckling over sizeable areas, evidently produced by applying pigment with a sponge. The speckles vary considerably in size and closeness of spacing from one specimen to another. Blue predominates in popularity over brown, red, green, and purple. Saucers and small bowls are the principal vessel forms.
Stoneware By definition, stoneware comprises those ceramics having nonporous, opaque bodies. All the stoneware from Signal Hill is glazed save one sherd of black basalt. Two major classes of glazed stoneware are recognized here: salt-glazed and lead-glazed; and each of those classes has two principal subdivisions: white and coloured. As one should have come to expect by now, the classifier, in dealing with stoneware, is faced With the same kind of quandary encountered in classifying earthenware: how does one distinguish between salt glaze and lead glaze? Exactly where is the dividing line between white and significant colour in the paste? The colour problem was solved in the same way as with earthenware. If a specimen seemed, subjectively, to be more white than not, it was called white; if it seemed more coloured than white, it was called coloured. Literature on the classification of ceramics sometimes mentions that one can recognize salt glaze by its bumpy or pitted surface that resembles the topography of an orange peel. The implication is that after seeing a few examples of salt glaze any fool can instantly recognize a salt-glazed ceramic body when he sees it. Some specimens are easy, it is true; but upon close inspection of a sizeable sample it is apparent that, while some glazes on stoneware have the classic appearance of salt glaze, others are perfectly smooth and do not resemble the texture of an orange peel in the slightest. These are here called lead glaze, although none were tested chemically to see if they do indeed contain lead. The problem is that there is a continuous gradation between the two extremes, and the classifier is faced with the same old quandary of classing into discrete categories a series of specimens that actually form a continuum. So, in the absence of precise quantitative criteria, the salt-glaze versus lead-glaze question was settled, as before, intuitively: if a specimen appeared to be more like salt glaze than lead glaze, it went into the salt-glaze box; if the opposite, it was called lead-glaze. Salt-glazed Stoneware Coloured The paste colours are mostly browns and greys, varying from very light to quite dark tones. The most common vessel shapes are small bottles (some with handles), estimated to have held from 1 to 3 gills and straightsided, footed beakers with a mouth conspicuously larger than the base (Fig. 80). The beakers usually have a groove running around the body just below the lip; their estimated capacity ranges from 3 to 10 oz. Similar beakers of coloured earthenware have been described previously. Other less common forms of coloured stoneware include cylindrical jars and wide-mouthed globular vessels. White A single sherd of white salt-glazed stoneware (Fig. 80) is from a plate or platter and has a typical moulded masketry design in the upper surface. Lead-glazed Stoneware Coloured A few sherds of lead-glazed, coloured stoneware were found. Most or all of them appear to be from small bottles and bowls. White Most of the lead-glazed stoneware has a whitish paste, although generally not as white as the white earthenware. There are several sherds from small cylindrical jars with vertical flutes in the sides (marmalade jars?) and some from chamber pots; but most are fragments of plates, cups, saucers, and bowls for table service. The latter, by and large, are in the general class that is sometimes called ironstone. It is undecorated except for an occasional piece with a moulded floral or geometrical design. Porcelain A few sherds of porcelain were unearthed at Signal Hill. As the writer's knowledge of porcelain is exceedingly scanty, this ware was separated into two classes only, oriental and European, and it is by no means certain that those identifications were accurate. As translucency is the only characteristic distinguishing porcelain from white stoneware, it was even difficult for the unpracticed eye to decide in some cases whether a sherd was white stoneware or a thick piece of porcelain. So the reader is warned not to place too much confidence in the classification of porcelain in this report, as gross as it is. But as the entire collection of porcelain is quite small, it can be glossed over without great loss. Clay Tobacco Pipes Except for one stem fragment of red earthenware, the pipes are of fine-textured, white earthenware paste. None are glazed. No complete pipes were found, but judging from the hundreds of broken pieces the complete ones had stems approximately 15 cm. long and bowls of approximately 7 cc. to 10 cc. capacity. The angle between stem and bowl ranged between 90 and 120 degrees. Small spurs projected downward from the bottom of the bowl on most of the pipes, only four definitely nonspurred specimens having been noted. Rarely there is a letter or other symbol on the bottom or side of a spur. The stems tapered from an outside diameter of 5 mm. or 6 mm. at the proximal end to a maximum of some 8 mm. or 10 mm. just in front of the bowl. (One atypical specimen has a stem with a maximum diameter of 14 mm.) Stem hole diameters vary from 4/64 in. to 6/64 in., with the large majority measuring 5/64 in. (see Tables 4-11). Mouthpieces were often coated with what appears to be varnish, evidently to keep the unglazed, porous surface from sticking to the lips. Of the pipe bowls complete enough to show over-all design, 18 are entirely undecorated, 10 bear only some kind of nondecorative mark (presumably intended to identify the maker or possibly the distributor), and 39 have some kind of decorative design. For purposes of description the pipes have here been classified into several different groups which are described below. Some of the designs have historical significance—temporal, social, political—but the tracing out of historical details relevant to the pipe designs is far beyond the scope of the present paper. Simple rouletted (1 specimen) One incomplete pipe bowl is encircled just below the lip by a thin line of closely spaced, tiny punctations. It appears that these were pressed into the plastic surface of the unfired pipe by a fine-toothed roulette. Fluted or ridged (13 specimens) There are several variations within this group, but all are similar in having vertical flutes and ridges, or both, covering almost all of the bowl exterior (Fig. 78, a-e). On most specimens, there is a nonfluted area just below the lip, often with a curvilinear or other device in it. Fluting and ridging also occur as secondary decorations on pipes having other designs (for example, Masonic emblems) as the central motif.
Foliated (6 specimens) These are decorated variously with leafy foliage, floral elements, fernlike sprays, clusters of grapes, and the like (Fig. 78, f-h). The designs appear in relief and evidently were formed by the same mould that shaped the pipe. Masonic (5 specimens) On one side of these pipe bowls is the familiar Masonic emblem of dividers and square (Fig. 78, i). The opposite side has a different figure—often a standing, long-legged bird with uplifted wings (Fig. 78, i'). Fluting, foliage, and other elements set off the Masonic symbols. The designs are moulded in relief. Sheaf-and-sunburst (2 specimens) On these pipes are a sheaf of grain on one side of the bowl and a sunburst symbol on the other (Fig. 78, j-j'). A raised, segmented band encircles the bowl just above the sheaf and the sunburst, while above that, just below the lip, is a band of hatching. There is another raised, segmented band around the stem a short distance from the bowl (Fig. 78, k). The bowls of the sheaf-and-sunburst pipes have a different shape from the others. The heel, in profile, is pronounced and almost angular instead of being receding and broadly rounded as are the others. There is no spur. The decorations are moulded in relief. Nautical (2 specimens) The pipe bowls of this group are decorated with ships and anchors moulded in relief (Fig. 78, l-l') Mathew (2 specimens) On these pipes (Fig. 78, m-m') the words TEMPERANCE V.R.T. MATHEW appear in raised letters around the top of the bowl just below the lip. One side of the bowl is dominated by a scene showing a standing man with left hand upraised and right hand resting on the head of a kneeling man or woman. There are several other people standing in the background. On the opposite side of the bowl are two buoys in the foreground with a distant sailing ship between them. There is a scroll beneath each buoy and another under the whole scene on which dim lettering can be discerned, possibly a Latin motto, although the legend is indistinct. On the proximal (stem) side of the bowl, between the two scenes, is impressed a small circular figure, and just beneath that, in raised letters, is the word CORK. Repeal (3 specimens) This kind of pipe (Fig. 79, a) has the word REPEAL impressed on the bowl, more or less equidistant between lip and stem, on the proximal side of the bowl. The word was evidently impressed on the plastic clay with a stamp that left the letters standing in relief within a depressed, rectangular panel. There is a faint corded design around the perimeter of the panel. A single line of tiny, closely spaced punctations, probably applied with a fine-toothed roulette, encircles the bowl just below the lip. Above the word REPEAL on one specimen is a round impression containing a design of some kind, but it is too faint to be made out accurately.
Human effigy (2 specimens) Two pipe bowls are moulded in the shape of a human head (Fig. 79, b-c). They appear to have been intended as likenesses of particular individuals, but as there are no names on them the persons represented were not identified. Both specimens are incomplete; perhaps names were present originally but have broken off. Someone familiar with the appearance of leading public figures of the period might be able to identify the persons portrayed by their features; that, however, is far beyond the capabilities of the writer. Union (1 specimen) Two large panels, one on either side of the bowl, contain the principal decorations on this pipe bowl. In one panel are a man's bust in profile and the letters DOGON_____LLESO forming a U around the lower part of the bust. In the opposite panel are a crown in the centre, two clasped hands above the crown, and along the right edge of the panel, reading from bottom to top, the words THE UNION. All of the elements described above are in relief. Around the panels are secondary fluted, foliate, rouletted, and other designs, some in relief, others impressed. Marked, undecorated (10 specimens) These pipe bowls have initials or other markings that evidently were intended to identify the maker or distributor but were not primarily for decoration. Seven bear only the initials TO on the proximal side of the bowl roughly a third of the way down the length of the bowl (Fig. 79, d). The two letters are rather widely spaced, 9 mm. to 16 mm. apart, measured from the approximate centre of each letter. In some cases the letters are raised, but in most they are impressed on the body of the pipe. Two other specimens are marked on the proximal side with an oval wreath enclosing the same initials, TO (Fig. 79, e). The letters are much closer together (4 mm. - 5 mm.) than on the unwreathed TO pipes. The last specimen has what appears to be an oval maker's or distributor's mark on the proximal side of the bowl. Part of the mark has broken off, but it can be seen that there was originally a sunburst centred inside the oval, a name that began J.H.S. around the top, and HALIFAX N.S. around the bottom. Marked and decorated stems Only six pipe stems embellished with decorative designs were found. Three have a rouletted line of asterisks spiraling around the stem. The other three are decorated with a leafy vine design that undulates along the stem. A number of the pipe stems have maker's or distributor's names stamped on them. The most common name is McDOUGALL, which occurs most often on one side of a stem that has the word GLASGOW on the opposite side (Fig. 79, i-j). A few stems have McDOUGALL GLASGOW on one side and VOLUNTEER on the other. Still others have McDOUGALL on one side and WOOD-STOCK PIPE on the other. The letters on the McDougall pipes are usually impressed into the body of the stem rather than being raised; they run in the neighborhood of 2 mm. high. Three rare names are: (1) MORGAN, which occurs on stems opposite the word LIVERPOOL, (2) MURRAY, which occurs opposite GLASGOW, and (3) W. WHITE, which occurs opposite GLASGOW. The only example of a pipe with a coloured body is a section of a brick-red earthenware stem which bears the name GOUDA on one side and J & G. PR on the other. The stem is broken right after the R of PR, so presumably a complete name was present before breakage. The stem is broken also at the G in GOUDA; possibly there were other letters or words preceding that name. The letters on this specimen are raised. Those forming GOUDA, together with the R in PR, measure about 2 mm. high; the letters of J & G. P are nearly 3 mm. high. Marbles Eighty-five marbles were found at Signal Hill, 78 ceramic and 7 glass. One ceramic marble is porcelain; the others are unglazed earthenware. Some are well-fired and hard, while others are poorly fired, soft, and friable. Diameters of the ceramic marbles range from 11 mm. to 29 mm., with the majority between 12 mm. and 18 mm. Three have designs painted on them—stripes in two instances, stripes and dots in the third (Fig. 79, k-l)—and several others bear badly weathered traces of pigment, probably the remains of an over-all coat of paint. Two ceramic marbles have a marbled appearance produced by swirling together light- and dark-coloured clays in preparing the body (Fig. 79, m). The three largest glass marbles have twisted strands of brightly coloured glass inside a clear matrix. Three others are of homogeneous glass. The seventh was given a faint marbled effect by swirling together dark blue and pale blue glasses. Diameters of the glass marbles run from 14 mm. to 23 mm. Glass A large quantity of glass sherds was collected from various parts of Signal Hill, mostly fragments of "wine" bottles made of dark green, or occasionally light green glass. Following standard usage, the term wine bottle here refers to bottles with distinct body areas, relatively long, slender necks, and mouths that are usually between 2 cm. and 3 cm. in diameter; capacity generally is from a pint to a quart. A ridge or a broad thickened area on the upper neck was to provide purchase for a string or wire to hold the cork in place. Such bottles, of course, were sometimes used to hold substances other than wine: brandy, whiskey, and rum for example. Wine Bottles The largest group of bottles comprises two complete bottles (Fig. 83, a, d) and thousands of fragments. The bodies are cylindrical and the necks, when viewed in silhouette, tend to have conspicuously convex edges. The bases are externally concave. A base with a shallow concavity is here termed an indented base; a relatively deep concavity is called a kickup. The wine bottles with rare exceptions appear to have been blown into moulds. The body was formed by a one-piece mould having no seams; the neck and shoulder were formed by a two-piece mould that produced two vertical marks on the shoulder of the completed bottle. A horizontal mould mark separating the body and shoulder areas is also visible on many specimens. The lip was finished with a collaring device which, because it was rotated, left no mould marks. The rotation of the collaring tool often also imparted a mildly twisted appearance to the neck. Good samples of both necks and bases of wine bottles were garnered from Signal Hill, but as the neck and base from a particular bottle could rarely be matched, the necks and bases will be described as two separate groups. Necks The necks (Fig. 81) range in length from about 7.5 cm. to 10.5 cm. and in maximum diameter from about 3 cm. to 5 cm. Most of them are roughly cylindrical in their lower half to two-thirds; many of them, however, expand slightly around the middle part. Above the lower cylindrical or expanded section the neck usually tapers rather strongly toward the mouth.
The top of the neck is thickened to form what is here termed a collar. Collars may be of double (Fig. 81, a-j) or, less often, of single form. Single collars are located either at the lip (Fig. 81, k-m) or a few millimeters below the lip (Fig. 81, n-r). In vertical section the double collars are wedge-shaped; the single collars are rectangular if located below the lip, but if at the lip, they have one or both edges rounded off. Most of the light green wine bottles have a single collar. On the double-collared necks the lower collar is frequently quite narrow; the upper collars, however, vary greatly in width. Specimens with relatively wide upper collars tend to be more carefully finished than those with narrow upper collars. Bases As nearly as could be determined, the wine bottle bodies were all blown in a one-piece mould. Some were held on a pontil for finishing the neck; some were held by a snapcase. The former have pontil marks of two different varieties: (1) a small, rough mark a centimeter or two across, typical of a regular pontil (Fig. 82, e), and (2) a thin, rough circle 4 cm. or 5 cm. in diameter, characteristic of a so-called improved pontil (Fig. 82, f). Most bases with pontil marks have kickups. Those finished in a snapcase (Fig. 82, d, g-h) usually have a moulded, indented base, often with a flat foot (Fig. 82, h) and sometimes with moulded lettering or some kind of design (Fig. 82, d). Some of the words appearing on bases are: PATENT, WOOLFALL MANOR, and 6 TO THE GALLON.
Wine bottle bodies measure, for the most part, between 70 mm. and 100 mm. in diameter and are estimated to have stood between 130 mm. and 200 mm. high (from bottom of neck to base of bottle). Miscellaneous Glass A whole soda water bottle with a convex base (Fig. 83, c) and sherds from several others were found. A reconstructed bottle with a short, broad neck (Fig. 83, b) was perhaps a sauce bottle. There are sherds of bottles that had square, octagonal, and round bodies. They probably held patent medicine, oil, and other commodities. Most of them were smaller than the wine bottles, and as a rule they were made of transparent glass, usually with a pale green cast.
In addition to bottles, fragments were found of blown stemware, blown tumblers, pressed glass containers of undetermined shape, and flat glass. Some of these specimens are of a pale amethyst colour, but most are of clear glass. Table Knives, Forks and Spoons Table knives and forks were all of iron with bone handles. Possibly some had wooden handles which have completely disintegrated. Only one specimen can be certainly identified as a table knife. It has a plain sandwich-type handle with the two bone halves presenting convex, polished surfaces. Measuring 82 mm. long, the handle tapers from a width of 18 mm. at the proximal end to 14 mm. at the distal end and has an average thickness of 14 mm. to 15 mm. A short section of the broken blade projects from the handle, but there is not enough to reveal the blade's original size or shape. Three other sandwich-type bone handles may be either knives or forks: they are too incomplete for positive identification. On one of the latter the handle is covered with crosshatched incising; the other two are plain. There are 13 table forks. Three have two tines and four have three tines; the other six have the tine portion missing. Six forks are equipped with plain bone handles. Two have light, crudely cut grooves running transversely across one face; two grooves in one case, four in the other. Another has the letters RP carved on it. Apparently these were identification marks put on by the owners. Another bone handle is covered with crosshatching.
The bone fork handles taper slightly toward the distal end. Three are of the sandwich type with convex surfaces on either side, The others have a socket drilled into the distal end into which a round iron extension off the body of the fork was inserted and fastened. The latter handles, which have a rectangular cross-section with rounded edges, gave the following respective measurements: length, 82 mm. and 83 mm.; width at proximal end, 16 mm. and 14.5 mm.; width at distal end, 13 mm. and 7 mm.; average thickness, 13 mm. and 7 mm. Dimensions of the two complete sandwich-type fork handles are; length, 71 mm. and 69 mm.; width at proximal end, 16 mm. and 16.5 mm.; width at distal end, 13mm. and 11 mm.; average thickness, 11 mm. and 10.5 mm. Fifteen spoons were found at Signal Hill; six made of iron, three of pewter or similar white metal, four of brass, and two of iron or brass that has been plated with silver. Five of the iron spoons are of tablespoon size, the only complete one being 222 mm. long. All of the iron spoons are heavily oxidized. One pewter spoon is of teaspoon size (137 mm. long). The other two are fragmentary, but both appear to be of tablespoon size. Of the four brass spoons, only one—a small sugar spoon 123 mm. long—is complete. The others consist of handles that were once soldered to the spoon blade but which have become detached. All the spoons except the three detached brass handles are of one piece construction. Two of the brass handles are quite small and must have come from spoons smaller than a standard teaspoon. The third, 156 mm. long, probably came from a tablespoon. The two silver-plated spoons, one a tablespoon, the other a teaspoon, probably date after 1870. Clasp Knives Five clasp knives and one clasp-knife blade were found. Handles still present on three are of bone with crosshatched incisions on them. The five specimens complete enough to tell about are one bladed. Their over-all length with blades folded into handles ranges from 86 mm. to 145 mm. The unattached blade is 102 mm. long. Case Knives Following Harris et al. (1965: 348-50), two types of case knives are recognized at Signal Hill, the distinction being based on the way the handle was attached. Type 1 knives have a flat extension of the blade to which a sandwich-type handle of wood, bone, or metal was pinned. Type 2 knives have a rod-like element extending back from the proximal end of the blade which is inserted into a socket drilled into the distal end of a solid handle of bone, wood or other material. Type 2 knives customarily have a flange or frog at the proximal end of the blade. Some type 1 knives have such a frog, but many do not. Miscellaneous Iron Artifacts Iron tools include axes of several shapes (Fig. 85, a-c), shovels, a pickaxe, a punch (Fig. 85, d), chisels (Fig. 85, e-g), files, and what appears to be a nail puller (Fig. 85, h). Among the iron building hardware items are hinges, door latches, shelf supports, and thousands of nails. Most of the nails are machine cut, but a few are hand forged and some are wire nails. Also made of iron are keys (Fig. 88, a-b), fragments of cast iron pans and stoves, ice creepers for attaching to the shoe soles when the ground was iced over, heel taps (Fig. 88, c-d), staff tips, flatirons, chains, wood screws, wire, strap iron, cannonballs, grapeshot, and other objects, many unidentified as to function. Some iron artifacts (knives, forks, spoons, buttons) are described in other sections.
Buttons Buttons were found at most places where excavations were carried out at Signal Hill. Included are specimens made of brass, white metal, iron, bone, glass, and shell in a variety of shapes and sizes. In the following pages are described the basic forms of button structure, the different methods of attaching, eyeing, and the decorative designs appearing on the button faces. Detailed data on each category of buttons (the number of specimens, size, maker's name, and other pertinent information) are summarized in Table 2. Form I This button form consists of a flat metal disk with a wire loop or eye attached to the centre of the back. Form II Form II buttons have a metal body that is convex when viewed from the face side. As on form I, there is a wire eye attached to the centre of the back. In order to give some indication of the degree of convexity, an arbitrary formula was applied: if the body diameter was at least four times the body height (height being measured from the plane of the edge to the centre of the face), a button was considered mildly convex and was designated form II (x); buttons with a diameter-height ratio of less than 4:1 were called strongly convex and labelled form II (y). Form III Form III has a hollow two-piece body, both pieces being cut from thin sheet metal. The piece forming the face is convex (face view); the back piece may be either convex (but less so than the face) or flat. The two pieces are joined so as to create a hollow body, the edge of the face piece being crimped over the edge of the back. A wire eye was fastened to the centre of the back. In making most form III buttons the face piece of the two-piece body was formed by pressing a sheet of metal between positive and negative dies, leaving a raised design on the face. Form IV Half of this compound form is made of sheet metal like that of form III, but instead of having a metal back, the face is crimped around a bone disk. On the one specimen of this form found at Signal Hill, the bone disk has two holes in it. Judging from the rust stains that remain, an iron wire eye was originally fastened through the holes. Form V This kind of button has a hollow metal body that was moulded in one piece. The face is convex, the back very slightly concave. A wire eye is attached to the centre of the back. A distinguishing feature is a small hole (about 2 mm. in diameter) in the back that communicates with the interior cavity. This probably was to allow expanding gases to escape during moulding. The exact process by which this kind of button was made is not clear. Form VI Form VI buttons are simply perforated disks (Fig. 86, u-ee) made of metal, bone, glass, and shell. The number of holes varies from one to five. Those made of metal usually have faces that are either (1) evenly concave, or (2) concave in the centre. The latter form has a little ledge running around the button between the central concavity and the button's edge. The ledge is usually flat but occasionally is convex; if a legend is present it appears on the ledge area. A common decorative motif is a circular line, often beaded, around the perimeter of the interior concavity. Sometimes the edge of the button is beaded also. Some legends are moulded in relief; others are impressed into the body of the button.
The backs of metallic form VI buttons are usually plain, but sometimes there is the manufacturer's name or other inscription. Some backs are evenly convex; others have a convex area in the middle. The convex area on the latter variety often corresponds with a central concavity on the face. The form VI buttons made of bone come in two principal varieties: (1) poorly finished disks, perfectly flat on both sides, with one centrally located hole, and (2) multi-hole buttons with a round depressed area on the face and a weakly convex, or occasionally flat, back. The former probably were cut out of flat bones locally. They were all found at the east flat, the same area where a quantity of bone blanks was also found from which similar buttons had been cut (see the description and illustrations of the blanks, and Fig. 89, h-i). Apparently the one-hole buttons were attached to clothing by passing a cord through the hole and knotting the cord so as to hold the button fast. They resemble bone backs for metal-faced buttons (form IV), but none have metal stains around the edges as would be expected had they been so used. The multi-hole buttons all have a round depressed area in the middle with 3, 4, or 5 holes in it. The space between the depressed area and the button's edge is usually rounded to produce a convex surface. There is often a groove around the perimeter of the depressed area. Most of these buttons have been well finished and polished. Form VII The body of form VII buttons is of moulded glass; the eye, made of iron wire, is moulded into the body. Form VIII Form VIII buttons are disks of bone or shell with a wire eye anchored in an undercut hole in the back. There are only three specimens from Signal Hill, two of bone and one of shell. The exact means of fastening the eye to the button is not certain, as only one specimen has the eye left and it is badly corroded. Form IX The body of this form consists of about three-fourths of a hollow metal sphere, the exterior of the sphere forming the face of the button. A wire eye with a relatively long shank is inserted through the opening in back and is attached to the inside surface of the sphere directly behind the midpoint of the face. The eye most likely is soldered to the body, but this is not certain as its point of attachment, deep inside the sphere, is not visible on the one form IX button from Signal Hill. Form X In this form, a one-piece, convex, metal body similar to that of form II had a short length of wire fastened by one end to the centre of its back; then a centrally perforated shell disk was attached by passing the wire through the perforation and bending it into an eye. The eye was set up as closely as possible to the shell disk, jamming it up tightly against the back of the metal body. Form XI This form has a hollow body that was created by joining two cupped elements made of thin sheet metal. Their union was secured by crimping the edge of the face element around the edge of the back element. In the middle of the back the sheet metal is thrust out into a steep-sided little mound, and four equally spaced holes in the sides of the mound provide the means of sewing the button to clothing. Eye Forms Most of the body forms have a wire eye fastened to the back by which the button was sewn onto the clothing. In cross-section the wire is sometimes round, but more often it is roughly hemispherical. The wire may be either brass or iron. Wire eyes were attached to the button body by the following methods. Eye Attachment A. The eye was formed by taking a short length of wire and bending its middle section around so as to form an approximately circular loop. The short segments at each end of the wire not incorporated in the loop were bent so as to project away from the loop, side by side. This was placed in the centre of the button back (with the wire ends against the back, thus raising the loop itself off the body a little way) and was fastened there with a drop of solder. As only the small surface of the two wire ends actually was in contact with the button body, the attachment was not a strong one, and many attachment A buttons are missing their eyes. Eye Attachment B. The eye was formed in the same manner as for attachment A except that the two wire ends, after being turned outward, were flared apart (at least on many specimens) instead of being aligned side by side. The eye was secured by placing it in the button mould and casting the button around it. A sort of conical boss was moulded around the lower part of the eye to give it greater strength. While mould marks remain on the back of some specimens, in most cases they were removed, evidently by spinning the button on a lathe and smoothing the back surface with an instrument. Eye Attachment C. The shape of the wire eye is the same as in attachment A. Moulded onto the centre of the button's back, however, is a small platform onto which the eye was soldered, presumably in the belief that the platform provided a better purchase for the solder and made the union of eye and body more secure. The little platforms are (approximately) from 5 mm. to 9 mm. long, 1.5 mm. to 3 mm. wide, and 0.3 mm. to 2 mm. high. Eye Attachment D. On many of the form III (two-piece, hollow) buttons the eye was attached by thrusting the ends of a wire eye shaped like form A through a small hole in the back of the button and bradding them down on the inside as one would set a cotter pin. Designs A large proportion of the metal buttons and some of the nonmetallic ones have designs on their faces. The designs were executed by several different techniques including moulding, die stamping, and engraving. In order to facilitate reference, some of the more common designs were assigned arabic numeral designations as follows. Unless otherwise stated the designs described here are in relief, presumably produced by moulding in some cases and by die stamping in others. Design 1. The basic motif is a garter surmounted by a crown, so placed that the centre of the garter falls well below the centre of the button (Fig. 86, a-d). The garter is closed with a buckle at the bottom, Within the circular to oval area enclosed by the garter appears a device of one kind or another. There is a legend (regimental identification, motto, or the like) on the garter riband. Design 2. A relatively large crown dominates the centre of the face (Fig. 86, e). Beneath it is an arabic numeral, evidently the number of a regiment. A legend runs along the edge at sides and top. Design 3. Centred slightly above the midpoint of the face is a crown (Fig. 86, f), beneath which are two crossed, leafy branches. A legend runs along the edge all the way around the button. Design 4. This design consists of three cannon aligned vertically on a shield, their muzzles to the left (Fig. 86, g-i). The cannon stand in relief; the shield is depressed, its surface covered with closely spaced horizontal lines. Spaced across the top of the shield are three raised, solid circles, and between them there are usually tiny pips clustered in groups of from three to six. Sometimes the latter are arranged into a pyramid resembling a stack of cannon balls. Design 5. There are three cannon aligned vertically, muzzles to the left. Above them is a crown, below them a scroll bearing a legend. Around the border is a kind of interrupted scallop motif. Design 6. This design, like designs 4 and 5, has three vertically aligned cannon with their muzzles to the left (Fig. 86, j-k). They are surmounted by a crown, but there is no other decoration nor is there any inscription. Design 7. This is another design that features three vertically aligned cannon with muzzles to the left. Above the cannon is a crown, and below it is a scroll bearing a legend. The design is enclosed within a circle that runs just inside the button's edge. Design 8. Near the centre of the button stands an elephant on a sort of platform, facing to the left. Above the elephant is a crown. There is lettering along the edge at the top; below the level of the crown the edge is bordered with leafy branches. Design 9. This simple design consists of a corded effect around the edge of the button and numerals centred on the face. The numerals evidently are the regimental number of the wearer. Design 10. This design has arabic numerals in the centre like design 9, but there is no decoration on the edges or anywhere else. Design 11. The main element is an anchor with a fouled line twined about it (Fig. 86, l). Above the anchor is a crown. The anchor and crown are inside a depressed oval panel with a ground of closely spaced, horizontal lines. The edge of the panel and the button edge itself have a corded effect. Design 12. This design consists of an American eagle with upraised wings clutching an olive branch in his right claw and four arrows in his left claw. Around the eagle's head are nine stars arranged in two rows. Design 13. The edge is corded. In the centre is a flower-like, engraved design that has eight slender petals radiating from a central point. Design 14. A depressed circular area covering most of the face has a ground of closely spaced horizontal lines (Fig. 86, m). In the circle are a crown and, beneath that, the letters GR. Design 15. An unidentified coat of arms with the motto LUX MINI DEUS occupies the major part of the face (Fig. 86, n). Around the button's edge are two closely raised lines. Design 16. An antelope that is facing left stands in the centre of the button. Beneath him is the arabic numeral 6. Surrounding the antelope and the 6 are two concentric, beaded, circular lines. Between the two lines are a crown (at the top) and the legend HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE. Design 17. In the centre is a coat of arms. Around it are two concentric circles. In the space between the two lines appear the words NOVA SCOTIA. Between the outer line and the edge of the button are a crown at the top and the word FENCIBLES at the bottom. Design 18. This design consists of the royal cipher surmounted by a crown, on a smooth ground (Fig. 86, o). Design 19. Design 19 is a crown centred in a depressed round field having a ground of closely spaced, horizontal lines (Fig. 86, p). Design 20. This is the so-called "French broken circle" design (Fig. 86, q). A short distance in from the button's edge is a heavy line that forms a circle with a gap at the top. The ends of the line at either side of the gap separate into curls, and there is a pip in the middle of the gap. Design 21. The face is dominated by an eight-sided star, each point composed of radially oriented, closely spaced lines (Fig. 86, r). A round area in the middle of the star, encircled by a wreath, contains arabic numerals, presumably a regimental number. There is a crescent-shaped element, with convex edge to the outside, in each space between the points of the star. Design 22. A round, depressed field with a ground of closely spaced, horizontal lines encompasses a large anchor with a fouled line attached (Fig. 86, s). The edge of the button is corded. Design 23. This design and fouled line in a round field with hachured ground is the same as design 22 except that there is a crown above the anchor (Fig. 86, t). In order to accommodate the crown, the artist who created this design sacrificed function for expediency and shortened the shank of the anchor so drastically that the cross-piece at the top of the shank rests on the tips of the flukes. Design 24. The design consists of a large anchor with fouled line. The entire surface of the face has a stippled effect which serves as a ground for the anchor. Coins Data on the 14 coins found at Signal Hill are summarized in Table 3. Shako Chinstrap Leaves Most chinstrap leaves are more or less semicircular platelets of sheet brass that are perforated along the straight edge (Fig. 87, a-f). However, one of the 28 specimens is lunate, and three others are oval with stepped lateral edges toward one end (Fig. 87, g). The shako leaves occur in graduated sizes from 19 mm. to 34 mm. wide and from 17 mm. to 38 mm. long. Early 19th-century British shakos had a chinstrap that was decorated with a graduated series of such plates strung together like shingles.
Shoulder-belt Buckles One plain and two decorated shoulder-belt buckles were found. They are oval brass plates, convex on the face and concave on the back. On the back of one (Fig. 87, i) are two knobs soldered to one end and two hooks soldered to the other for fastening the buckle to the belt. The other two specimens have the same arrangement except that there is only one hook (medially positioned) instead of two. One of the decorated buckles (Fig. 87, h) has a crown at the top; the letters G and R flank the crown at its base, and below are the letters NSR. This specimen is 71 mm. long, 54 mm. wide, and 2 mm. thick. The other decorated buckle (Fig. 87, i), 81 mm. long, 61 mm. wide, and 1.0 mm. thick, has a garter and crown with three vertically aligned cannon in the middle. In the garter is the inscription: HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE. The plain buckle is 68 mm. long, 52 mm. wide, and 2 mm. thick. Military Insignia On the front of the shako worn by British soldiers in the early 19th century was a large insignia stamped out of thin sheet metal. Fragments of such insignia made of brass were found, but there were no whole or reconstructable ones. David A. Webber, Curator of the Newfoundland Memorial Museum, St. John's, examined the scraps and made the following identifications: British Army Officer's shako plate, universal issue, 1800-1812; British Army Officer's shako plate, universal issue, 1812-1816; British Army shako plate, 1829-1839. There are other pieces of insignia of various kinds made of brass and white metal, probably from patch boxes and other accoutrements.
Jewelry Bracelet A plain brass bracelet resembles those traded to Indians during the early 19th century. The body of the metal is oval in cross-section and averages about 4.5 mm. wide by 2.5 mm. thick. The bracelet is roughly circular and has an average diameter of some 64 mm. Signet A small intaglio signet portrays a bird that looks like a hawk but carries an olive (?) branch in its mouth as doves are reputed to do. This pacifist hawk is carved in the surface of an oval piece of what looks like amethyst set in a plain brass mount. Probably this is part of a ring, or possibly a locket. The oval piece of amethyst (?) is 15 mm. long, 12.5 mm. wide, and 3 mm. thick. The bird stands 11 mm. high. Wrist Rosary A rosary designed for wearing on the wrist as a bracelet consists of a brass chain, 15 glass beads, and a silver-plated brass medal. The beads are wire-wound of opaque, pale blue glass; each has 3 white glass dots spaced about equidistantly around the circumference. The beads are 5 mm. to 6 mm. long and 6 mm. to 7 mm. in diameter. The oval body of the medal is 17 mm. long, 8.5 mm. wide, and 0.5 mm. thick. It is attached to the chain by a perforated tang 3 mm. long that was moulded onto the medal. On one side of the medal is a figure of the Virgin with this legend running around the sides and across the top: O MARIE CONÇUE SANS PECHE PRIEZ POUR NOUS. The date 1830 appears at the bottom. A second row of tiny letters inside the above inscription reads: QUI AVONS RECOURS A VOUS. In the centre of the opposite side is a symbol combining a cross and the letter M; around it are 12 stars. Glass Beads Two glass beads were found in addition to the rosary beads described above. One is a simple, translucent, blue bead of wire-wound construction that is 5.5 mm. long and 7 mm. in diameter. The second bead is an equatorially symmetrical disk of clear glass with a high peak on each face. It looks, in other words, like two low cones joined together base-to-base. Both sides are heavily faceted, and instead of a central perforation there are two small holes on opposite sides of the peaks. This bead is 20 mm. in diameter and 11.5 mm. thick. Lead Artifacts Musket Balls The musket balls are all approximately the same size, near 17 mm. in diameter. An occasional one has a rough spot or a faintly visible mould mark, but most specimens are well-formed and almost perfectly spherical. Lead Weights Three lead weights were recovered during the excavation at Signal Hill. The largest is of the kind currently used on cod nets and is probably of quite recent origin. Of the same slender, conical shape as the large one, the other two are much smaller and quite possibly are considerably older. The large one weighs 336.5 gms., and the others 71 gms. and 54.8 gms. respectively. Lead Pencils These are lengths of lead that are pointed at one end. The smaller one, 52 mm. long and 6.5 mm. in diameter, has been carefully shaped into a symmetrical cylinder. The other one was hammered into a rough bar that is subrectangular in cross-section, about 93 mm. long, 11 mm. wide, and 7 mm. thick. Both pencils have carefully pointed writing tips. Sheet Lead Several scraps of sheet lead were found. Probably used for various purposes, the scraps are of irregular shape and vary in thickness between 1.0 mm. and 3 mm. Miscellaneous Lead Objects A few small objects made of lead were not identified as to function. Although of different shapes and sizes, they are lumped together for convenience and tabulated under the label "miscellaneous lead objects." Bone and Antler Artifacts Bone buttons and bone handles for knives and forks have already been described. Other artifacts made of bone include combs, brush backs, a whistle, dominoes, and other items. Whistle A bone whistle (from which the writer could coax no sound other than a dull whoosh) is round in cross-section and appears to have been turned on a lathe (Fig. 89, b). It is 65 mm. long and has a diameter at its thickest point of 10.5 mm.
Dominoes Three gaming dominoes made of bone were found (Fig. 89, d). They are flat, rectangular tablets 28 mm. to 32 mm. long, 14 mm. to 16 mm. wide, and 1.5 mm. to 3 mm. thick. The face is divided into two equal areas by a transverse groove, and there are varying numbers of pips in each area. The pips were made by drilling small holes part way through the bone. One specimen has two tiny holes all the way through the domino with copper stains around them, revealing that a backing piece (perhaps made of wood) was originally pinned to the bone piece. Combs Fragments of two fine-toothed, double-edged combs were found (Fig. 89, t). All the teeth are missing except one heavy end tooth which measures 11.5 mm. long. There is an average of about 14 teeth to a centimeter on one specimen, about 16 to a centimeter on the other. The solid area between the two rows of teeth is 14 mm. wide on one comb, 17 mm. on the other. Thickness is 1 mm. to 2 mm. for both specimens. Brush Backs Two brush backs, one complete, the other fragmentary, were carved from bone. The bristled area of the complete specimen (Fig. 89, j) is rectangular, 77 mm. long, 25 mm. to 26 mm. wide, and about 5 mm. thick. A flat, hour glass-shaped handle extending off the bristled area is 88 mm. long. The broken specimen (Fig. 89, g), consisting of the distal part of the bristled area, is about 25 mm. wide and 5 mm. thick. Miscellaneous Bone Artifacts A rectangular bone object (Fig. 89, e) is flat on both sides, but one side is bevelled along the two long edges and one of the short edges. There are saw or rasp marks on all surfaces. Of unknown use, this artifact is 30 mm. long and 20 mm. wide. In thickness it tapers from 8 mm. at one end to 6 mm. at the other. One flat piece of bone of elongated oval shape (Fig. 89, c) has a hole about 3 mm. wide near one end. This specimen is 75 mm. long and has a maximum width of 21 mm. Thickness decreases from 5.5 mm. at the perforated end to 3 mm. at the other. A flat, polished bone disk about 29 mm. in diameter and 2 mm. thick has a hole 8.5 mm. wide in the centre. How this artifact was used is uncertain. Three fragmentary bone cylinders are of unknown use. One specimen, when complete, had an estimated diameter of 25 mm. and was of uncertain length (but longer than 41 mm.). The wall thickness was about 2.5 mm. The other two cylinders were both about 22 mm. long and an estimated 19 mm. to 22 mm. in diameter. Wall thickness varies from 2 mm. to 4 mm. Each of the two latter specimens is threaded on the inside at one end. These cylinders were fashioned on a lathe from mammal long bones, probably pig. A quantity of flat bones unearthed at the east flat were riddled with round holes where buttons had been cut out (Fig. 89, h-i). A button was detached by grooving both sides of the bone with a device that left a small hole in the centre of the button. Almost all of the holes are either about 10 mm. or about 11.5 mm. across, but one measures 16 mm. and another 19 mm. These dimensions do not correspond exactly to the one-hole form VI bone buttons described in another section of this report. Antler Cane Head The head of a cane, swagger stick, riding crop, or similar object was carved from deer antler (Fig. 89, a). It is socketed to receive a cane end that was about 10 mm. in diameter. A small iron pin was inserted laterally into the socket to secure the head to the cane. Brass and Copper Artifacts Brass and copper artifacts found at Signal Hill include such items as nails, hinges, keys, drawer pulls (both the knob and the hinged varieties), buckles, thimbles, horseshoe-shaped heel taps, a sleigh bell, a ramrod thimble off a musket or rifle, a bracelet, cartridge cases, percussion caps, friction tubes, and other things. Brass and copper buttons, military insignia, and coins have been treated in previous sections. Most of the copper and brass artifacts will not be described in detail. Specimens of interest are illustrated in Figure 88 where their size and design may be seen. A brief description of the friction tubes is given immediately below, however, as published descriptions are not available in archaeological literature to the writer's knowledge, and they are especially useful for close dating. Friction Tubes These devices for igniting the charge in a cannon consist of a brass tube 78 mm. to 79 mm. long and 5 mm. in diameter that has a short tube (10 mm. to 11 mm.) attached near one end at right angles (Fig. 88, f). The longer tube was made by rolling a rectangle of sheet brass into a cylinder, the two abutting edges forming a flush seam. The cylinder was perforated 5 mm. to 6 mm. from one end, and the short tube was wired on tightly at that point so the interior of the two tubes communicated through the perforation. The shorter tube has two extended strips which are bent around the longer tube to make their junction more secure. The shorter tube is made of sheet brass too, but its seam is overlapping instead of flush. The top of the shorter tube was crimped down in such a way that a transverse dent was left running across it. The following explanation of how a friction tube works refers to the American tube of 1864, but the British version worked in the same way.
Stone Artifacts Under this heading are included sharpening stones, quartz crystals, slate pencils, and gunflints. Sharpening Stones Two whetrocks of fine-grained sandstone have been squared up into rectangular shape (Fig. 90, a). Both are broken and their original length cannot be determined; but average width is 35 mm. and 41 mm., average thickness 18 mm. and 30 mm. respectively. A third specimen made of dark grey slate (Fig. 90, h) has been only roughly shaped. It is 133 mm. long, has an average width of some 53 mm. and is 17 mm. to 27mm. thick. One side is polished as though used for sharpening knives, The other side has numerous scratches and three deep, V-shaped grooves. The grooves presumably were for sharpening awls or other pointed implements.
Quartz Crystals Small, naturally pointed quartz crystals, 17mm. to 24 mm. long, show no modification save evidence of wear on the point (Fig. 90, b-c). They evidently were used for marking objects made of glass, metal, or some other hard substance. Slate Pencils Several pencils of dark grey or reddish grey slate were found (Fig. 90, d-e). They were used for writing on a slate surface. Shaped roughly into cylinders, they are ground to a writing point at one end, and in one case, at both ends. The only unbroken specimen, which has a groove around its proximal end, is 44 mm. long; the longest broken section measures 64 mm. Diameters vary from 4 mm. to 6 mm. Gunflints Two forms of gunflints are present: the spall type (1 specimen) and the conventional type (4 specimens). All are made of flint, light to dark grey in colour, and all are of a size appropriate for use on a musket. The spall flint (Fig. 90, f), struck from a prepared platform and shaped by unifacial retouch, is 24 mm. long, 30 mm. wide across the striking edge, and 8 mm. thick at the heel. The conventional flints (Fig. 90, g) are sections of lamellar blades. Rather severely battered as a rule, they are 25 mm. to 32 mm. long, 22 mm. to 25 mm. wide across the striking edge, and 9 mm. to 12 mm. in maximum thickness. Shell Artifacts Other than buttons, which are described in another section, the only artifact made of shell is a circle cut out of mother-of-pearl that almost surely was part of some kind of ornament, perhaps a brooch. The body averages some 9 mm. wide, while the total diameter of the circle is 38 mm. This object was evidently attached to something by means of two small holes placed opposite one another.
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