 |
 |
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
Canadian Historic Sites: Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History No. 2
by Iain C. Walker Part I The King's Bastion and its Casemates: The Pipes and Their DatingBecause the time span of the casemate under study is relatively short (about 50 years) dating of pipes has been done primarily on the evidence of makers' marks and names. With the exception of the Dutch bowls, all bowls from which the shape could be deduced appeared to be basically of Oswald's type 9 (Oswald 1961: 60, 61). This type of bowl seems to have been the result of the influence of a Dutch pipe type — brought over by the troops of William III at the time of the English Revolution in 1668 — on the traditional barrel-shaped English pipe bowl.1 Oswald dates this type to about 1680-1730, noting that in England it occurs in the West Country (that is, the Bristol area) and in London and the Home Counties. In the New World at least, the export version (Oswald's type 9c) and numerous variants and derivatives were universal long after this, and certainly as late as about 1780 (I. Noêl Hume 1963: 262). In England, Oswald's type 10 continued the more traditional features in various forms. This type continued for most of the 18th century until type 11, a derivative of type 9, became standard and finally set the norm for what is traditionally considered the shape of a British clay pipe. In the New World, however, as indicated above, the type 9 shape was universal — perhaps because Bristol, where such pipes are datable to before 1700, was such an important export centre — and there seem in fact to have been definite "export only" models. Harrington's method of dating pipe fragments by bore diameter measurement (Harrington 1954) was not used in this study, as the relevant Harrington period, 1710-50, covered virtually the entire occupancy of the area involved. Binford's straight-line regression formula based on Harrington's work (Maxwell and Binford 1961: 107-9; Binford 1962: 19-21), however, was applied to the various layers in order to obtain comparative evidence. The order of layers in this casemate from top to bottom runs from Layer 1 to Layer 12, inclusive.
No significant pipe material came from Layer 1. In Layer 2 the following material was studied (the catalogue number given is the lot number followed by the object no.). The standard work on the pipemakers of Gouda (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942) does not list a crowned 6, but it is illustrated along with of her marks all captioned merely as 18th century (Pl. VIII). The coat of arms of the city of Gouda was put on certain Gouda pipes only after 1739-40 (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942: 18, 48), however, so this pipe cannot be earlier than this date. That the crowned 6 was in use prior to 1739 is suggested by its occurrence on a pipe without the coat of arms from Santa Rosa Pensacola, Florida, a Spanish settlement founded in 1722 (Omwake 1964: 23-4). (There is confusion as to the meaning of the coat of arms. Gouda pipes came in three qualities known as porceleyne, fijne, and slegte — porcelain [actually a high polish], fine, and ordinary — and in November, 1739, according to Helbers and Goedewaagen at one point [p. 18] to prevent merchants mixing pipes permission was given to differentiate the porcelain class by adding the Gouda arms to the bowl, However, sales of fine pipes dropped so much because buyers thought they were ordinary pipes that on 4 March 1740 permission was given to mark fine and ordinary pipes with the arms, surmounted by the letter S [slegte], on both sides of the bowl. Elsewhere, however [p. 48], it is stated that in 1739 fine pipes were to have the single arms and that the 1740 authorization allowed the double arms and letter S for ordinary pipes, porcelain pipes presumably being left unmarked.) As Omwake notes only one other example of a pipe with the single coat of arms known to him in North America this example and that from Intrusion 1 can be considered very rare. (Two more pipes of this class were discovered at Fort Gaspereau, New Brunswick [1750-56], by the writer in 1966.) The letters The mermaid is a Gouda pipemaker's mark, but in this case the coat of arms is missing. The design on the pipe shown here is the earlier of two versions, on the original imprint of which it says, according to Helbers and Goedewaagen (1942: 170, No. 78; cf. 207, No. 222), "13 May 1745," which would appear to imply that this was when it was registered. However, another Gouda mark, the trumpeter, was first registered in 1674, and it is recorded (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942; 196) that its original imprint bore an inscription dated 1769, so such inscriptions do not necessarily indicate a terminus post quem. The absence of the coat of arms from a pipe of as high quality as this example (and that in Intrusion 1) might support the version of the meaning of the arms noted above where the highest class of pipe, that called porcelain, did not carry the arms; on the other hand the arms may not have been added by all Gouda makers, the pipes may have been a high-class imitation of Gouda pipes, or they might even have been made prior to 1739. The first known owner of this mermaid mark was Jacob Klaris, it was obtained on 31 July 1747 by Boudewijn Klaris and not apparently sold again until 7 August 1770. It is quite likely that this pipe and other examples to be noted at Louisbourg were manufactured by one or both of the Klarises.
The history of the letters TD associated with clay pipes has already been dealt with in some detail by the writer (Walker 1966a), though more study of these pipes is still required. It is virtually certain that the example here had on the front of its bowl (that is, the side facing the smoker) the letters TD with a decorative motif above and below, inside a thin rouletted circle, all impressed, similar to other pipes described below. Pipes with a similar design are common from camps of the period of the American Revolution (Calver 1931: 92, 93); from Fort Ligonier, Pennsylvania, occupied between 1758 and 1765 (J. L. Grimm, personal communication); from Fort St. Joseph, Michigan, which was maintained by the French until about 1760; from an Indian village site in Louisiana occupied intermittently until 1758 (both quoted by Omwake 1965: 18-9, from an ambiguous reference in Quimby 1942: 545-6), and at Fort Michilimackinac where Omwake (1962; 1-2) tentatively suggested a date of about 1755-65 for types that were possibly the earlier of two main variants found there. They also occurred at Fort Ticonderoga, New York (Gifford 1940: 128, 122, Fig. 13), founded in 1755, and nearby Fort William Henry, 1755-57 (Omwake 1962: 9), but in unknown contexts. On present evidence, therefore, TD pipes found at Louisbourg are unlikely to date to earlier than the mid-1750s.
The most likely maker of these pipes appears to be Thomas Dormer, known from two addresses in London in the 1760s (Oswald 1960: 68). The date on which he received his freedom (became a licensed pipemaker) cannot be later than 1763, the earlier of the two dates mentioned, but nothing more is known of him, and no pipes of the type under discussion here are in the collection of the Guildhall Museum, London (letters from A. H. Hall, 18 March 1965 and R. Merrifield, 26 April 1965). Since he was already working in the 1760s, however, he could have been working as early as the 1750s. The letters FS are not recorded by Oswald (1960: 91) before 1832: however, from Casemate 3 Right a bowl with heel (4L.39, no object number) was recorded and this had the letter F, crowned, on the left side of the heel (the right side was broken off), and the letters FS with the same decorative motifs and circle as that on the pipes bearing the letters TD described above. Pipes with these letters, crowned, in the same positions as in the example described above, on type 9 bowls but with no design on the bowl, came from the Bankside excavations, London (letter from R. Merrifield, Guildhall Museum, dated 26 April 1965). The use of crowns, though a typically Dutch form of marking, is common in association with initials on either side of the heel on pipes found in London covering the period from about 1690 to 1760 (Atkinson 1965: 254; 253, Fig. 6; 255, Fig. 7). The letters FS are not recorded at Gouda, though a Frans Soet, who used the Gouda arms as his mark, gained his freedom on 1 March 1737 (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942: 170, No. 157), but the style of these pipes is certainly English and the letters must represent some unknown maker. There are too many makers with the initials RB or RR (14 of the former between 1706 and 1766 and six of the latter between 1713 and 1774-90) to make further identification feasible (Oswald 1960; 60-1, 90). No name resembling "Dunier-" is recorded either in England or Gouda, but the name and style of marking suggest it to be Dutch or French rather than English (cf. Duhamel du Monceau 1771: 24-5, Pl. IX, Figs. 20-1, Pls. I-IV passim). Virtually the only example of dating evidence derived from bowl shape alone comes from 32.7 (Fig. 8, right), an entire bowl and stem fragment. The relatively upright position of the bowl indicates that it is at least typologically late, verging towards Oswald's type 11 which he dates to 1780-1850. An example very similar to but smaller than the one under discussion came from Casemate 4 Right (4M.27.1) and was regarded by Omwake (1965: 26) as being late, possibly intrusive, in terms of the probable occupancy of these casemates. He dated the specimen to 1750-60, but the present writer would not be prepared to preclude the possibility of a slightly later date.
Helbers and Goedewaagen (1942: 213) do not list owners of the crowned 14 before the 19th century, but their illustration of a portable board carrying 18th-century marks shows this mark, though uncrowned (Pl. VIII). The use of the coat of arms and the letter S point to a date later than 1740. The pipe stem marked Oswald (1960; 84) lists seven pipemakers with the initials WM between 1698 and 1775. One of these, William "Morley" of Liverpool, noted in 1767, was in fact William Morgan who gained his freedom in that year (Omwake, personal communication, 1965), and the William "Morley" noted by Oswald in Liverpool in 1803 was William Morgan (junior) who gained his freedom in 1803. A. Noêl Hume (1963: 23) noted that pipes bearing these initials in various forms — on the base of heelless pipes and on either side of the heel, plain or surmounted by crowns or sunbursts — are common in Williamsburg, Virginia, in deposits usually datable to 1750-65, though they had also been found in a deposit that appeared from a Binford calculation to date to about 1740. A. Noêl Hume suggested William Meakin of Chester who became a freeman in 1747. Until Liverpool eclipsed it towards the end of the 18th century, Chester was a major pipemaking centre; thus Meakin certainly seems a more likely maker than the only other known maker with these initials between 1700 and 1747, William Mellor of Bolsover, Derbyshire, apprenticed in 1723. Mellor probably catered to a very local demand in a country area.
Atkinson (1965; 253, Fig. 6; 254; 255, Fig. 7; 256) notes that among pipes found in London, the initials WM, with and without the crowns, occur on either side of the heel of pipes datable typologically from about 1690 into the second half of the century; but Oswald lists no known London makers with these initials during this period. One fragment with these letters crowned, one on either side of the heel (4F.6.19), came from Casemate 14 Right, apparently in a 1720-32 context, but was perhaps intrusive from the fill above. From Casemate 3 Right, a bowl and heel (4L.1.7) had the letters WM, crowned, on either side of the heel; and these letters with the same decorative motifs and rouletted circle as those described on bowls with the letters TD and FS facing the smoker. From Casemate 5 Right (4N.16.4) a bowl with identical decoration to one to be described (Fig. 10) had on either side of its heel the letters W and M, each crowned. The example in Figure 10 has lost its heel. The letters WM are not listed by Helbers and Goedewaagen but are illustrated, crowned, on an 18th-century portable board of pipe marks (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942, Pl. VIII). Helbers subsequently noted (quoted by Omwake 1965, letter: 5-6) that this mark, uncrowned, was in use in Gouda in 1726; that it was subsequently crowned, and that it lasted in that form until 1809. The pipes in question here, however, are certainly English.
The use of the decorative motifs above and below the letters TD, FS, and WM and their surrounding with a rouletted circle occurs with the letters WG also; and pipes bearing these last letters, like those with the letters TD, are known from camps dating to the American Revolution (Calver 1931: 2, 93). Pipes bearing the letters WM and FS in this style should therefore be broadly contemporaneous in date, and thus late in terms of Louisbourg's history. There must be some connection among these four distinctive marks, but what this is has still to be determined (Cf. Walker 1966a). Proof of the widespread popularity of the TD and TD-derived marks comes from excavations of the factory in Drammen, Norway, about 25 miles southwest of Oslo belonging to Jacob Boy, a pipemaker who was in business from 1751 to 1770. In common with other Scandinavian pipemakers he manufactured pipes in both English and Dutch styles, and one of the former was a bowl of the same shape as the TD-marked pipes described above, with the letters IB facing the smoker but otherwise identically marked, and the letters I and B on either side of the heel (Pettersen and Alavik 1944: 53, illus. on p. 49).
Material from Layer 4 is less readily datable than in Layers 3 and 2: the pieces with the letters TD point to a date approximately the same as these layers, but the heavily decorated stems are fairly closely paralleled on the one hand from a rubbish pit in Chester which contained material datable to the first three decades of the 18th century (Webster and Barton 19S7; 20, 24), and on the other to material from the military site at Penetanguishene, Ontario, occupied between 1826 and 1856, which Omwake (1965, letter: 6-7; the material has not been seen by this writer) notes as being typical of the 19th century. Spence (1942: 53, 51, Pl. IV, 1) suggests that an identically decorated stem to that illustrated by Webster and Barton was made by Randle Meakin (brother of William referred to previously), who became a freeman in 1721, or by his son of the same name who became a freeman in 1784. Randle (senior) was apparently working at least as late as 1758 (Spence 1942; 64). In view of the known tendency of 18th-century Chester manufacturers to make pipes with elaborate stem decoration, it is reasonable to ascribe these three fragments to these makers. Although from the 17th century onwards, Dutch pipemakers produced pipes with decorated stems, frequently very heavily done in baroque ornament, the present writer knows of no Dutch parallels to the decoration discussed here. A stem fragment with the same decoration came from Casemate 3 Right (4C.39.93), unfortunately from unrecorded digging there in the summer of 1962. The bowl bearing the lion guardant and crown is the one already mentioned as being identical to one with a heel bearing the letters W and M, crowned, from Casemate 5 Right (4N.16.4). (Similar bowls are known from London and one from Port Royal, Jamaica [Oswald, personal communication], but none was in a datable context, and that from Port Royal is certainly later than 1692 when much of that port was destroyed by an earthquake.) The bowl is certainly English and the letters GR presumably stand for Georgivs Rex, one of the three Georges, kings of Great Britain from 1714 throughout the rest of the century. It seems likely that pipes with this design were manufactured for a specific occasion, and thus may be very closely datable it the event can be determined. Unfortunately, the example from Casemate 5 Right came from an area excavated by machine and its context cannot now be known. As already noted, letters surmounted by crowns, including the letters WM, occur from early in the 18th century, but it we take the Williamsburg evidence that they occur normally about 1750-65 there, the obvious event to be recorded by this design would be the accession of George III in 1760. An alternative but less likely explanation could be that the design was produced as a patriotic gesture to mark the end of the War of Spanish Succession in 1748. It the maker was indeed William Meakin, then the pipe cannot be earlier than 1747, but it the occurrence of the letters W and M, some with crowns, and in a context datable to about 1740 at Williamsburg is substantiated, then Meakin cannot be responsible for these examples at least, and the patriotic gesture could have been made during the troubled times in Britain of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745-46. The bowl shape is well-developed, and while the plane of the rim of the bowl is not parallel with the line of the stem, this feature is known on TD bowls from Fort Michilimackinac, which Omwake tentatively dates to about 1755-65 (Omwake 1962: 1-2; cf. Duhamel du Monceau 1771: 4, Fig. 19). It should be dated later than 1727, when George I succeeded his father.
The initials HT belong to three known 18th-century English pipemakers (Oswald 1960: 96); Henry Turner who worked in London between 1707 and 1732, Henry Tucker of London who died in 1741, and Henry Tapplin of Easworth, Hertfordshire, who is mentioned in 1750. From this it appears that pipes bearing these initials were being manufactured all through the period of occupation of Louisbourg. The use of the figure 8 cannot be identified. The use of numbers was another characteristic of the Dutch, but neither the style of number nor the form or quality of the fragment show any Dutch influence. Had this fragment and others like it described later come from unsealed layers, it could have been suggested that they belonged to 19th-century pipes, for by this time the use of numbers to denote styles and other information on pipes was known (Omwake 1957a; 8; Walker 1966a: 88-9). According to Fairholt (1859; 173) and Cassidy (1895: 18), the Dutch were the first to wax the ends of their pipestems about 1700; and the English quickly followed, using either wax (usually red) or a glaze (Cooper 1907:108), a tin glaze which turned green on firing according to Omwake (1965: 30). Omwake states that these methods appear to have been used only on the best-quality pipes, for it is recorded (Cassidy 1895: 18) that the custom of dipping the stem in ale for a few minutes before use was the practice for ordinary pipes. (The author knows of an octogenarian in England who still [1968] does this with his clay pipes.) According to Parsons (1964: 232, quoting two sources dated 1693), both glazed pipes and glazed mouthpieces were common in the 17th century, but the reference to glazed pipes seems certainly to refer to polished pipes (Houghton 1727; 205; though published in 1727, this work first appeared in 1693/94). Jewitt (1878 I: 298) extols glazed mouthpieces as one of the merits of the pipes of an Edwin Southorn, working at Broseley in the 1850s and 1860s, and implies that the custom was unusual. (It must be admitted, however, that this particular account by Jewitt is erroneous and contradictory in parts.) At Rosewell, Virginia, datable to about 1772, a few mouthpiece fragments were found with coated or glazed ends. One had a post cocturam red wax finish, as with the example here; another had an ante cocturam black slip, and others had a treacly brown glaze or a bluish green glaze flecked with light brown or orange (I. Noêl Hume 1962: 221).
The mermaid cipher of Gouda has already been discussed, and while it may date only from 1745, it is not possible to be certain of this. The pipestem marked Pipes found in Britain with initials on the side of the bowl are restricted in distribution, though they are common in America (Oswald 1959: 59). Oswald does not list an encircled EC amongst those depictions known, chiefly from the Bristol area in England (Oswald 1961: 56). Elsewhere (1960: 63) Oswald lists only two known English pipe makers with these initials: Evans Cheever of Canterbury who became a freeman in 1741, and Elisha Clanno of Exeter working about 1780. Either of these pipemakers would agree with the late (in terms of Louisbourg) date suggested by the previous evidence, though the latter must almost certainly be too late. All the examples of these bowls from the casemate have very indistinct marks, but the decorations above and below the letters do appear to differ, or are even non-existent in certain examples. The same can be said for the pipes with this mark from Casemate 4 Right (Omwake 1965: 15-6). Proof of the varying nature of the decoration comes from two well-preserved specimens, one from Casemate 5 Right (4N.7.22) where no decoration appears save for a colon between the letters, and one from one of the basements of the Chateau St. Louis (16D.4.9) showing a rather squat, solid crown above the letters and below, a solid ace of clubs. The crowned 6, a Gouda mark, as remarked previously, offers no definite dating evidence other than its occurrence in Layer 2 and at the contemporary site of Santa Rosa Pensacola (Omwake 1964). Similarly, the figure 8 also offers no definite dating.
The occurrence of the first mark in previous layers suggests this could have been deposited approximately at the same time as the others; however, the Tippet pipe may be appreciably earlier. There was a number of Tippet pipemakers in Bristol in the latter part of the 17th century and the earlier part of the 18th, and one branch of the family comprised three generations all called Robert. Omwake (1958) and Oswald (1959) have dealt with this branch of the family. The first-named appears to be the more accurate account, and recently Omwake (1964: 20-3; and letter dated 16 March 1965: 7-8) has supplied additional material. The first Robert Tippet became a freeman in 1660 and died between 1661 (when he took an apprentice) and 1689 (when his wife is referred to as a widow with an apprentice free that year). Presumably he was dead by about 1682, for his widow apparently had her apprentice the full seven years of legal apprenticeship, but Omwake's reasoning for 1680 is wrong — his source has a comma omitted which wrongly implies the wife had been a widow seven years in 1687. The second Robert became a freeman in 1678 and was still alive in 1713. Meanwhile, his widowed mother J(o)ane appears to have carried on her late husband's business, at least until the turn of the century, for she is recorded in 1696. (There are references in the records to both a Jane and a J(o)ane Tippet, whom Oswald [1960: 96] lists as two different persons, but Omwake [1958: 5; 1964: 22] shows that they are in fact one and the same person.) The third Robert became a freeman in 1713 and either he or his father is referred to in 1720.2 It is extremely difficult to differentiate pipes made by various
members of this family, but the first Robert is unlikely to have been
making pipes of the type 9 shape, as he died just about the time these
pipes were beginning to appear. The rapidity with which this shape
gained in popularity, however, is indicated by the appearance of this
type with Oswald (1959; 61) notes that at one excavated kiln site in Bristol, Tippet pipes of heeled, spurred, and heelless types were found, and at another, heelless ones only, suggesting, in view of the finding in North America of the last type only, that Tippet enterprises had a large enough business to specialize in export only models. Even in today's attenuated pipe industry, the firm of C.B. and McDougall of Glasgow (Walker and Walker 1969), successors of D. McDougall Ltd. (founded in 1846, not as Fleming [1923: 243] states, 1810) had, until they closed in November, 1967, between 30 and 40 moulds in operation to satisfy different tastes in different parts of the world (Knight 1961: 34). The occurrence of Oswald's type 9 pipes so exclusively in North America may have been because of a similar predilection. Omwake (1958: 6) has suggested that Tippet pipes found in England with the RT on the bowl but not the medallion might be for the home market, and certainly all New World Tippet pipes seem to have the medallion.
The piece with the letters EC is identical to other finds in previous layers, suggesting the approximate contemporaneity of this deposit and the other finds. The crossed pipes, as mentioned above, are of Dutch shape, but the standard both of the decoration and the stem itself seems to fall short of the normal Dutch excellence. No definite identification can be found, it was at first thought that the decoration represented a crude and inaccurate version (perhaps forged) of the badge of the Gouda pipemakers guild, which was two crossed pipes with their bowls up (unlike this example where the bowls face out) surmounted by a crown (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942: Pl. I). Subsequently, however, a stem fragment (16A.1.381) bearing the same design as this stem, but with a more legible imprint, was recorded from the Chateau St. Louis. The marks above the crossed pipes are now revealed to be a name; the letters appear to read ALLT or ALLY, and above this again there are marks tentatively deciphered as IOHN, though only the O is definite. No pipemaker of a name resembling this is known either in England or The Netherlands, and the name itself does not definitely indicate its nationality. The pipes depicted on the stem, however, are certainly Dutch in shape. From its form, one bowl from this layer, 13.3 (Fig. 8, left), might be construed as being relatively late. The bowl is more upright than most of those found in this area, and approximates one from Layer 2 (Fig. 8, right), which was compared earlier with a larger but otherwise similar bowl from Casemate 4 Right, for which a 1750-60 or later date was suggested (Omwake 1965:26). This particular example (13.3) is larger than the one from Layer 2 though not as large as the example from Casemate 4 Right.
Pipes made by the Tippet family have already been discussed and the occurrence of five here suggests an earlier date than that deduced for the previous layers. The absence from this layer of any pipes with the letters TD, which are known to be late, and of which eleven were found in the previous layers, reinforces this suggestion. The Tippet pipe with the badge on the side was certainly not a
standard product of the family: indeed its occurrence seems completely
unrecorded to date. The heel suggests it may have been intended for the
English market. The pipe may have been intended to commemorate some
event, in which case it may ultimately be closely datable; but attempts
to identify it have so far failed. Pipes with the
Nevertheless, the occurrence of two bowls marked EC, already noted in upper layers and discussed earlier, would suggest a much later date for the deposition of this layer if the identification of these initials is correct; and the occurrence of a pipe with the letters FS, both crowned, two other examples of which occurred in upper layers, suggests the same conclusion. The complexly decorated stem 73A.5 appears to be Dutch in origin, for the decoration is paralleled on two stems with bowls attached from Casemates 13 Right and 14 Right (4W.3.112, Fig. 38, and 4F.6.391, Fig 44, respectively), which have on the heel a crowned LV with what appears to be a bird flying below. While this mark is not recorded by Helbers and Goedewaagen, it is typically Dutch; and the bowl shape, while not among the usual ones illustrated in Figure 27, may be a contemporary of the type with the plane of its bowl parallel to its stem which, brought to England in 1688, inspired the type 9 shape and its variants, and ultimately was responsible for the shape that came to be associated with all English clay pipes. Thus the shape itself, which appears not to have caught on in The Netherlands, implies a relatively early date in terms of Louisbourg; a supposition strengthened by its occurrence in the right face casemates which were tilled about 1732. The crowned 10 is also a Gouda mark, it is not listed by Helbers and Goedewaagen, but one of their illustrations (Pl. VIII), captioned only as 18th century, shows it. The crowned 6, another Dutch mark, has already been referred to. However, in this case, the coat of arms of Gouda is not present and it seems probable, though not entirely certain, that this pipe dates to before 1739-40.
The crowned B, also Dutch, was originally registered in 1661. The earliest known owner, however, is a Bastiaan Overwesel who sold it on 6 November 1770 (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942:139). Oswald (1960: 63-6) lists a number of Carters, but only two, or conceivably three, who could have been active during the occupation of Louisbourg: James Carter of Rye, married in 1689; Richard Carter of Bristol, freeman in 1706; and another James Carter, of Bristol, freeman in 1734. The date makes it less likely that the James Carter of Rye would have been the maker, and Rye was a tiny port in Sussex while the port of Bristol was the centre of trade to the American colonies at this time. The style of mark on top of the stem is unusual, however, it seems
unknown in Bristol and there are unfortunately no pipes identifiable
with either Carter in the City Museum, Bristol (Lillico, personal
communication). On the other hand, the style is known in northeast
England, where it is the normal means of identification between about
1675 and 1725, though in a very much more ornate form (Parsons 1964:
245-7, Fig. 3a). Parsons does not list any makers by the name of Carter
from this area. (Since the above was written a C. Carter has been
identified, on the basis of excavated material, as probably a
Southampton pipemaker dating to about 1720-50. His pipes have a C on
either side of the heel and The initials ER are recorded for several pipemakers in the 18th century, all occurring early: Edward Randall of London, making pipes in 1719; Edward Reed of Bristol, 1706-22; Edward Rushton of Liverpool, 1702-19; and another Edward Randall Jr., of Bristol, who became a freeman in 1699 (Oswald 1960: 88-9) and who seems to be the same as the London Randall noted above (Oswald 1960: 48). Two pipes bearing these letters on the bowl facing the smoker, as here, came from an Indian cemetery at Kutztown, Pennsylvania, and both are of type 9c and similar in appearance to Tippet pipes (Pearce, personal communication). The cemetery contained other material all datable to the period 1700-40, and the child burial containing the pipes in question also contained a silver spoon datable to 1720-25 with crest and hallmarks from Philadelphia: Witthoft (in a letter) feels a date in the 1720s for the burial is likely. In view of the fact that these initials are similar in form to, although larger than, the RT on the Robert Tippet pipes, there appeared to be the possibility that the maker with the initials ER had been apprenticed to one of the Tippet family, and that on becoming a freeman, used his master's style. In this case the maker would most likely be a Bristolian. Reed was apprenticed in 1699 to William Tippet senior, perhaps a younger brother of the second Robert; though by a curious coincidence Edward Reed's brother, Thomas, was apprenticed to the second Robert Tippet in 1698 (Ralph, 1964, letter). Randall was apprenticed to John and Mary Sindering in 1689, his father, a pipemaker, being dead by this time (Ralph, 1965, letter). At Louisbourg, in a context which cannot be closely dated, a pipe bowl (8A.3.1) was found with the letters ER almost identical in style to the RT on Robert Tippet bowls and with a medallion on the side enclosing an indecipherable name (what appears to be the letter O at the end of the middle line is all that is legible). It is tempting, and this thought is not necessarily contradicted by Oswald's identification (1961: 62, n.6) of a pipe with the letters ER facing the smoker and these letters on either side of the heel as made by the Edward Randall of London mentioned in 1719, to think that at least the pipe with the medallion was made by an apprentice of one of the Robert Tippets. According to Oswald (1960; 48), Edward Randall Jr., of Bristol was the same person as the Edward Randall working in London 20 years later; if so, the use of the initials on the bowl facing the smoker might have been inspired by the Robert Tippet pipes, even if Randall had not been apprenticed to that family. Were he later in London, Randall could have added the letters to the heels of his pipes, following what seems to have been a popular custom in the London area, as already noted (Atkinson 1965: 253-5).
The initials HT have already been discussed when dealing with a pipe fragment which has these letters on either side of its heel (Layer 4, 66.2). The right side of the bowl, as the smoker holds the pipe, was missing in this example, and as makers' medallions are almost invariably on that side, it is possible that the pipe from Layer 4 and the fragment from this layer may have been made by the same person. However, as three makers, who between them cover the period Louisbourg was occupied, are known to have had these initials, no positive identification can be given. A pipe stem from the Chateau St. Louis (16F.2.7) reveals that the name REUB/ENSI is in fact Reuben Sidney, but no maker of this name is at present known either in England or Gouda. Presumably, however, he was English. (Since this was written, Reuben Sidney has been identified as a Southampton pipemaker who is known to have been active 1714-16 [information from Atkinson via Oswald, November 1968].) Helbers and Goedewaagen do not illustrate any mark resembling a claw hammer, and the uncertain mark resembling a hollow circle surmounted by a barbell has no illustrated parallels, it is certainly not the milkmaid, which is perhaps the nearest approach illustrated, nor is it the three-leaved shamrock. The encircled, six-rayed star on the stem cannot be identified at present, though an unbroken specimen (16D.4.9) was found in the chateau. There is one bowl from this layer, 103.1 (Fig. 28), which approaches the extremely elegant. elongated shape which is Oswald's type 9c par excellence. As noted earlier, all the English pipes from this casemate are basically of this type; indeed, they are universal in the New World to the exclusion of the more common type used in England (type 10) during the greater part of the 18th century. At Louisbourg, however, the slender long bowl set at a markedly obtuse angle to the stem as shown here is unusual, this example being the only one known from this casemate and one of the few seen in the Louisbourg material so far. As noted earlier, A. Noêl Hume (1963: 262) shows that type 9 and its variants last throughout most of the 18th century. This example most nearly approaches a shape dated by Noêl Hume to 1720-80, and it was found at Rosewell (A. Noêl Hume 1962; 220-1, 232, Fig. 35, 8) in a context dating to the third quarter of the century. In itself, therefore, this bowl does not add to the dating evidence of this layer. It is interesting that this type of bowl is so rare at Louisbourg, as it suggests that wherever the source of such bowls, it was not a place that had much trade with Louisbourg, unless this particular type of pipe failed to win favour in certain areas. As will be shown below, its occurrence in this layer dates the pipe to not later than the 1740s. Layer 10 No significant material came from this layer.
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
raised on base of heel, the arms of
the city of Gouda raised on a projection on either side of heel and
surmounted by a raised S, the mouth of the bowl having a milled edge
(Fig. 5, a-c).
(Helbers and
Goedewaagen 1942; Pl. VIII and 127) — and there is recorded in
Gouda a family of van Ommen. Several generations of this family
were pipemakers, and at least one, Frans, was working at the time of
Louisbourg (Helbers and Goedewaagen 1942: 188, 225). The only mark known
to have been used by the van Ommen family at this time, however, was the
crowned 79, and in fact it was extremely rare for a Dutch maker to use
his initials as a mark.
and a line above, impressed, large shallow letters, widely spaced.
impressed on it (Fig. 15).
inside a circle, all raised, on right side
of bowl (Fig. 18, bottom right; Fig. 19, right).
in the medallion on the right side of the bowl, for
this almost certainly identified pipes made by J(o)ane Tippet and thus
can be dated, at the very latest, only to the earliest years of the 18th
century. One of these pipes found in this casemate is described later.
Omwake (1958: 12) tentatively suggested that the second Robert may have
started with the impressed RT on the back of the bowl, later adding the
medallion on the side, and that the third Robert may have used the
medallion without the RT, in which case all those at Louisbourg of
which enough evidence survives to make this assumption certain would
have been made by the second Robert. Gifford (1940: 128-9, 122, Fig. 14)
shows examples of Tippet pipes from Fort Ticonderoga distinctive in not
having the RT on the bowl. It any one of the Robert Tippets was still
working by 1755 when the fort was founded, then it would be the third,
thus agreeing with Omwake's suggestion. None of the material from Fort
Ticonderoga was excavated stratigraphically and it could be argued that
Robert Tippet pipes found there represent some prior settlement, either
Indian or European. These pipes are common on Onondaga and Oneida sites
dating from before 1700 to about 1750 (Hagerty, personal
communications). (Three were found, however, by the writer in the summer
of 1966 while excavating the closely dated site of Fort Gaspereau, New
Brunswick [1750-56]. indicating that the pipes, it not the maker, were
in existence as late as the 1750s. Further, two Tippet pipes were found
during excavation in 1969 of a wreck in Baie-des-Chaleurs, on the
Quebec-New Brunswick border, which was datable to 1760 [information from
R. Grenier, National Historic Sites Service].)
impressed on it (Fig. 25).
in circle on right of bowl, raised (Fig. 18, bottom left).
raised from a round-cornered, depressed square on top of stem, the name
running at right angles to the stem (Fig. 26).
(as examples 121.2) or 
(as
in example 83.1). The 
|
|
|
||||||
