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Canadian Historic Sites: Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History No. 4
by George Ingram The Farm: Early ApproachesThe introduction of farming to Lower Fort Garry in the 1850s followed a number of similar but unsuccessful experiments by the Hudson's Bay Company in the settlement. During the 1840s, small numbers of cattle were kept at the lower fort to fill temporary demands for meat. Then in 1848, a breeding operation was established for horses and beef cattle. In the 1850s, the herd was increased considerably in size when the Company entered into land transportation and in 1857, the Company began cultivation at the lower fort. By the time Roderick Campbell arrived at Lower Fort Garry in 1859, he found that there had recently been established "a very large farm . . . in the immediate vicinity." He later wrote that, "The experiment in agriculture proved most encouraging and the harvest was everything that could be desired." He went on to describe its appearance in glowing terms: "The golden-tinted wheat, the plump round barley, the capital potatoes and turnips, soon showed the fertile capabilities of the Red River Valley."1 In the 1860s, another observer described the Company's enterprise as "immense."2 The farm at Lower Fort Garry was one of the more successful of the Company's agricultural ventures and was quite certainly one of the largest in the Northern Department. It grew out of necessity in the late 1850s and lasted only as long as the need continued — only as long as transport animals were required at Red River and the local food supply was unsatisfactory to meet the needs of the Company. Cultivation reached a peak between 1857 and 1861 and again in 1868-69. Between 1869 and 1874, only a large garden was cultivated. By the 1870s, the increasing use of steamboats on the inland waterways, the arrival of the railway in the West, and the active settlement of the plains removed the raison d'être of the farm. * * * Only gradually and with much hesitation did the Hudson's Bay Company introduce farming to the lower fort. The reluctance could be traced back to failure in previous farming experiments in the colony. There was a major difference, however, which separated the farm eventually established at the lower fort from its predecessors: the earlier farms had been established to foster agriculture and related industries in the fledgling colony; that of 1857 was developed solely to answer the needs of the Company. Motives of altruism and self-interest blended in the Company's attempts to strengthen the economic base of the Red River Settlement.3 In 1836, when the Governor and Committee launched its last and most ambitious experimental farm, they expressed their aims quite clearly — the farm was intended to serve as an example for the settlers, to help them adopt modern agricultural practices and eventually produce crops appropriate for an export trade. George Cary, acquainted with both "the theory and practice of agriculture" was sent out to manage the new venture. In a lengthly letter, the Governor and Committee explained their reasons for yet another farm: It is highly desirable to establish an Export trade from the Settlement, as a source of revenue from England, and as the Country appears to be well adapted for rearing sheep and Black Cattle, and for the growth of Flax and Hemp, we think the two latter articles, and those of Wool and Tallow (all of which can bear the expenses of transport) the most likely to yield a fair profit to the growers, we have therefore determined on establishing a farm on a large scale, and as it will be conducted on a more regular system, than the people have been accustomed to see, they will benefit greatly by the example which will there be held out, and by the information they will acquire in watching the management thereof. Towards this end, we intend sending out, by the ships of the current year, Mr. Carey, a Gentleman who understands both the theory and practice of those branches of agriculture, and with him from 12 to 15 English Farm Servants, and it is our intention to send out in a like manner, from time to time, as many Servants as can be employed to advantage at the Establishment.4 The Company went one step further by sending "two women" out from Canada to establish a "school of industry" for the instruction of the settlers in the processing of the products of their farming.5 The Company's motives were not appreciated by the settlers who soon complained that the Company was merely seeking to displace them in the supply of provisions for the fur trade. To the Company officials, this impression was regrettable, and they soon instructed those in charge at the Red River to correct the thinking of the settlers. From several reports that have reached us there appears to be an impression on the minds of the Settlers that in forming the Agricultural establishment under the management of Captn Cary, our view is to raise grain and other provisions required for the service of the Fur trade, and thereby deprive them of the market they have hitherto had for their surplus produce. That impression is erroneous and should therefore be removed: the object of the establishment in question being to form an export trade from Red River, on a large scale in the articles of wool and Flax, for which the Country and climate are well adapted, as without an export of some description it is impossible a growing settlement can prosper.6 Not appreciated by the settlers and certainly not a success in producing flax and wool for export, the farm was reduced in 1840 when it was decided to maintain it purely for the sake of having a Company experimental farm in the colony: By the General Dispatch, you will observe it is intended to reduce the experimental farm so as merely to retain the name of such an establishment, and if that name be found too expensive, we must in due time endeavor to expunge it.7 Even this formality was dropped in the following year when the experiment was abandoned and Cary was allowed to take over part of the farm as a private concern, The Experimental Farm, which has not been productive of the benefits that were expected when it was established, although attended with considerable outlay, has been abandoned, Mr. Cary & the Servants having been permitted to retire. That Gentleman likes the country, & as he shews every disposition to render himself useful & agreeable, I let part of the Farm to him.8 All had not been in vain, however, as some of those connected with the farm remained in the settlement. Captain Cary's smith made what appear to have been the first bricks in the colony a year after the farm's failure,9 and almost 20 years later, "one of the Red River settlers who came out originally for the Company's Experimental Farm," Oliver Gowler, was described as "one of the most extensive Farmers in the Settlement."10 The failure of the experimental farm to provide a model for the settlers did not halt the Company's attempts to foster production in the settlement. As late as 1848, the Governor and Committee sent out seed corn, and in the following year when they sent seed wheat they noted: "We are gratified to find that cultivation is extending, and will do everything in our power to encourage a spirit of agricultural industry, and indeed of any other kind of industry, in which the Settlers can advantageously engage."11 The Red River was a primary source of food staples for the fur trade, and by encouraging production in the settlement, the Company was merely attempting to strengthen one of its own sources of supply. The settlers produced a variety of provisions which could not be exported conveniently from England; in 1852, for instance, a long list of supplies was obtained from the settlement: corned beef, cured hams, cured pork, lard, dried meat, onions, salted cabbage, potatoes, garden seeds, butter, cheese, flour, preserved eggs, biscuit, blanketing, cloth, and coating (for weaving was done in the homes), oak boards and staves, elm and oak timber, portage straps, three oxen, fourteen sheep, two pigs.12
To this must be added wheat, which the Company bought in quantity. The settlement proved to be a very fickle supplier, however, and a frustrating one to depend upon for the lifeblood of the fur trade. The settlers were often victims of their limited techniques and the least disruption by nature threw their crops into ruin. Locusts, floods, and early frosts destroyed crops all too frequently, lowering the yield to one which was inadequate to supply the settlers themselves, let alone the trade. When the crops were small, the settlers took full advantage, withholding their produce until the price rose to a higher level. The Company was then forced to look to the pemmican hunters, a declining source, and the costly importation of food to fill its needs. Occasional increases in the consumption of provisions, such as that of 1846-48 when the Sixth Regiment was stationed at Red River, also necessitated massive importation. The need to establish an adequate local food supply gradually forced the Company to use the lower fort in provisioning its enterprises. In 1846, the Company was given the contract for supplying the mess of the Sixth Regiment after it arrived in September. The soldiers demanded fresh meat, refusing the salted beef which the Company offered in fulfilling its obligations. As the host of a force which it had been instrumental in bringing to the colony, the Company could do little but accede to the request. Cattle were bought from the settlers and kept over the winter at the lower fort and other locations in the settlement, being slaughtered only as they were needed. All the people were exceedingly anxious for their cattle being Killed at once, which we could not possibly do, therefore, to avoid killing too many, all the Young growing Cattle were purchased on valuation (about 60 head) and are now wintering at the lower fort, also with Mr. McDermot's cattle and amongst the settlers.13 The policy was continued in the following year when there were about "twenty cows" at the lower fort belonging to the Company in November.14 The keeping of stock at the lower fort, 1846-48, was merely a temporary expedient to aid in the feeding of the troops, but in 1848, the Company added permanency to the lower fort establishment by sending out thoroughbred breeding stock in an attempt to improve the herds of the settlers. A horse — Melbourne — a mare, a bull, and two cows arrived in November. The Company's factor in Red River, Alexander Christie, suggested that they be kept at the lower fort because of its natural advantages: The live stock arrived from England by the ship, consisting a Horse & Mare, with one Bull & two cows, were taken up by Mr. Mowat, and delivered here in perfect safety, the Groom who came out in charge of the Stock, is a very decent industrious man and apparently well qualified for the duty for which he was engaged. — I recommended that these animals should be Kept here for this winter, the hay is preferable to what is procured near the Upper Fort.15 The breeding stock was kept at the lower fort, where a stable was probably constructed. The Company's horse-breeding establishment was not blessed with good fortune. Only two years after it began, the mare and her foal died at the lower fort.16 Although Melbourne remained healthy his services were not fully exploited. The Company planned to use the horse for covering its own mares and also the mares of the settlers in return for a modest fee. Neither scheme seems to have been successful. Eden Colvile, at the lower fort in 1851, complained to Simpson of the failure of the venture as far as the Company's horses were concerned: I have desired Mr. Black to give me in a statement regarding the mares. I believe very few have been disposed of and these few were so light that they were not able to bear the English horse. We have at present about 40 mares here [at the lower fort], rather more than half of which have been already covered. The mare[s] have never been handled & we have great difficulty in managing them, as they are as wild as deer.17 Even those mares which had been already covered and had produced foals presented a problem as no solution had been worked out for the disposal of the progeny.18 As for the use of Melbourne by the settlers, Colvile had offered every inducement but the settlers still remained aloof. I have reduced the price of the horse to the settlers, but he does not get much custom — as they get other stallions at a much cheaper rate, and they do not appear to care much for the breeding of the stallion.19 Three months later, Colvile was even more adamant in his condemnation of the whole scheme: This English horse and bull are about as bad a speculation as the Company ever engaged in; and I do not think either of them pay for their keep. The settlers have sent just 17 mares to the horse, though the price of him was reduced to one pound with a shilling to the groom. He covered about 60 mares belonging to the Company, but they were so wild, never having been handled, that I understand more than half of them are not in foal.20 If the Company intended the project as a way of helping the settlers, they might as well abandon it in Colvile's view: In fact, it is ridiculous attempting anything of this sort for the benefit of these people. You do not even get thanked for it. My opinion is that the horse should be sent next season to St. Louis, and sold for what he will fetch, and I think a good price may be obtained for him. You may take my word for it we shall never make a fortune by breeding horses in this country.21 Simpson found the want of success of the "horse breeding operations" disheartening but as usual he was reluctant to abandon a scheme. He was inclined to blame those in charge for its failure. "I think," he wrote, "it may be attributed to the indifference felt on the matter by some of those who were engaged in it & to the frequent change of plans of the different Gentlemen who have been in charge at Red River of late years."22 Later in the same letter, he suggested an ingenious solution for the problem. Melbourne, based at Lower Fort Garry, would travel up and down the settlement offering his services. On stipulated days of each week, he would be available to the settlers' horses at various stations.23 Simpson's proposal does not seem to have been adopted and instead Melbourne spent the next few years travelling around the country. Although he was in the settlement and probably at the lower fort in 1855, by the fall of 1856, it was planned to send him to the Swan River district, to the "company breeding establishment at Fort Pelly." In 1858, Melbourne was still in the Swan River district. But as late as 1860, he was without a permanent home. William Mactavish wrote to Simpson asking what should be done with the big horse and suggesting that he be transferred from Fort Pelly to the Red River. Although Simpson was also at a loss for a solution, he disagreed with Mactavish's suggestion that Melbourne should be moved to the Red River.24 The year 1856 ended the talk of the horse-breeding establishment at Lower Fort Garry, and although horses were retained there in later years, they were kept as mounts for employees of the Company, and for working purposes.25 Colvile had been almost as scathing in his criticism of the English bull as he had been of Melbourne. It, too, had been little used by the settlers. "The bull," he wrote, "has had just 14 cows, and the settlers now say that he ought to be turned loose in the plains, for they do not understand, paying 5/- for him."26 It was of little avail for the Company to attempt to do things for the settlers, he felt, as they simply did not appreciate its efforts. Simpson came forward in 1853 with an alternative, proposing that "the progeny of the English Bull and Ayrshire Cows" at the lower fort should be distributed over the country with a view to a general improvement of the Company's stock.27 Knowing that the officers at the more remote posts would regard the beefy English cattle with a hungry eye, he went on to warn that instructions should accompany the cattle, stating that "they be taken great care of and used for the purpose intended and not as beef for the support of the people at the Posts."28 Meanwhile, John Black arrived independently at a similar idea and suggested to Simpson that the cattle of the English breed be raised at Forts Ellice and Pelly because the Red River cattle sell very well in the States. . . .under the stimulus of these foreign additions to the increasing domestic demand cattle will soon rise to such a figure, as to make it a matter of consequence to us to have a good stock of cattle at our command at the neighbouring Posts."29 Black was more interested in building up a stock of cattle so the Company would not be forced to buy those of the settlers at high prices. Simpson, however, had a quite different idea in mind; he wanted to raise cattle for sale in the rich market of the northern United States pointed out by Black. I agree with you that if more attention were bestowed on the raising of horned cattle, we might benefit by the increasing demand for Oxen & Cows at the new Settlements in the Minesota territory. It was with this in view I directed the dispersion of the progeny of the English Bull & Cows to neighbouring posts & have to beg you will give instructions on the subject to the persons in charge of posts in Red River district.30 As it turned out, Black's scheme was the one finally adopted. A detachment of Canadian Rifles was due to arrive in the Red River settlement in 1857, and Simpson, perhaps remembering the difficulties of provisioning the Sixth Regiment in the 1840s, suggested that the Company should accumulate a herd of cattle, It was usual formerly to buy up beef cattle for the Company from time to time, to be fattened, and Killed as required. This, I think, was better than depending on supplies from the Settlers at the moment they are wanted. You will therefore avail yourself of any favorable opportunities that may offer of buying oxen up to the number of 50 head which may be either used at the establishment, or resold at a profit as is found necessary or advisable.31 Swanston, who had relieved Black at Red River, apparently anticipated Simpson, as a month later Simpson wrote back approving of Swanston's purchase of cattle: I quite approve of what you have done to counteract the combination for raising the price of beef, i.e., buying cattle to fatten & kill as required. By my last letter you will observe I recommended that course and instructed you to buy up to 50 head of cattle of the Company's account.32 These were kept at the lower fort. The purchase of cattle in 1856 and 1857 indicated that the Company was becoming annoyed with the failure to obtain adequate supplies of provisions in the settlement at reasonable prices. In the late 1850s, this shortage of provisions and a revolutionary change in the transportation system of the Company vaulted Lower Fort Garry into prominence as a supplier of agricultural staples and as a depot for the Company's oxen. Before 1857-58, the Red River had been supplied with goods directly from England, almost exclusively by the York Factory route. But by 1857, the demand of an "increasing business done at Red River and for the Fur Trade of the surrounding districts" began to tax that route to its very limits. It had never been satisfactory; the loss of a ship would threaten the fur trade with starvation and bring trading to a standstill. Often goods had to be left on the shore of Hudson Bay when an extra burden was added to the usual indent. The necessity of ordering goods two or three years in advance brought high overhead costs. Also, by the mid-1850s, it had become difficult to obtain men for work on the arduous brigade from Red River to the bay. For all these reasons, Simpson and William Mactavish began to look to the south as an alternate route for bringing in supplies from England. It was an obvious choice; for many years the Red River settlers had brought goods either from Pembina or directly from St. Paul. In 1858, a small indent was brought in by the New York-St. Paul route as an experiment, and the success of the venture ensured that the route would be used in the future and would eventually replace York Factory in the supply of the Red River. To implement the transportation scheme, Simpson commissioned the firm of J.C. and H.C. Burbank in St. Paul to forward the English goods coming from New York to Red River. The Company eventually entered into partnership with the Burbanks for the purchase and operation of a steamship on the Red River to transfer the goods to the settlement; however, the Hudson's Bay Company still retained a role in the transport of goods from the south and for this would need oxen and carts. In the first year of the operation, the steamship was not yet running and carts were sent from the settlement to St. Paul to pick up the goods from England. Later the steamboat service was unreliable and could not be counted on to make the trip in times of low water. As late as 1865, a factor complained that oxen had to be kept on hand to make the trip in its place. I believe it will be better to leave the Steamer International out of our calculations in all future schemes of transport; the facilities it may occasionally offer do not compensate for the continual expenses incurred on her account, more especially when it is borne in mind that owing to the uncertainty of her being able to make the trip, we are under the necessity of Keeping a large stock of cattle on hand to be available if required.33 At first the Company took it upon itself to carry the goods and for this reason it purchased oxen and carts and established a post at Georgetown on the Red River south of the border. Some of the oxen were wintered there so the goods could get an early start in the spring. Others were kept at the lower fort, at first to travel between Red River and the south, and later to supply the oxen for other trips into the interior. With the changes in transportation the lower fort became an important depot for the stabling of oxen for the transshipment of goods to the Saskatchewan. At the same time the shortage of provisions in the Red River in the 1850s led directly to the establishment of the farm at the lower fort in 1857. Gradually Simpson became more and more dissatisfied with the uncertain food supply. With the arrival of the Canadian Rifles in the settlement in 1857, he resolved to do something about the chronic food shortage and high prices. Farms were established at the lower fort and eventually at the White Horse Plain. In addition to feeding the servants of the Company, the farms were also essential at the terminals of cart trails for the feeding of oxen as this animal assumed an increasingly important role in the transportation system of the Company. The natural qualities of Lower Fort Garry made it the logical choice for the location of a new Company farm. It had always been considered by Simpson to be ideal for such a purpose especially after its original role had been aborted by the construction of the new upper fort. As early as 1838, when the experimental farm on the Assiniboine had been established, Simpson had projected an additional farm at the lower fort. In his instructions to Cary he told him of his plans: As it is intended the Farming operations shall be on a large scale, I think it will be necessary to have two Establishments, instead of one, i.e., one at the Forks and the other at the stone Fort;. . . .For various reasons, I think that [the lower fort] will in due time become the Principal Farming Establishmt as the pasture is more rich and abundant in that Neighbourhood than anywhere else with dry ridges that may with little labor be cleared of the willows & underwood, so as to become peculiarly well adapted for sheep walks.34 His enthusiasm was again noted in a later letter which praised the "country about the Lower Fort" for its "pastural and agricultural" possibilities.35 The use of the lower fort in the 1840s and 1850s for the wintering of beef cattle and for the breeding of horses attested Simpson's faith in its potential capabilities for grazing. Simpson wrote to the Governor and Committee informing them of his intentions to establish the farm in June, 1857. His letter sounded a note of complete frustration after years of depending on the unavailing settlers of the Red River: Notwithstanding the constant cry of the Red River settlers, of the want of a market for agricultural produce, recent experience has taught us that, we cannot depend upon them for the necessary supply of the Company's trading posts and the garrison. It has, therefore, been decided to commence farming on the Company's account at the Lower Fort under the charge of Mr. A. Lillie, clerk, a very active and promising officer, who has a practical knowledge of farming. The land is now in the course of being broken up. We shall this season indent for some ploughs, harness &c and conduct our operations on a scale calculated to produce about:
If this farm be well conducted, I think the above produce may be raised at less cost than it could be purchased for in the settlement.36 Simpson made it clear that the main purpose was to provide a source of provisions in the face of the failure of the settlers to supply the Company's needs. A possible saving was only an additional consideration. Simpson lost no time in gathering together the ingredients for a farm; the need was made greater by the arrival of the Canadian Rifles in the settlement. Andrew McDermot was consigned to supply 100 head of cattle in the fall of 1857 — 50 oxen to be slaughtered and "50 cows with their calves, the cows 2 years old & upwards. . .for breeding."37 Throughout the summer of 1857, the difficulties of Chief Factor William Mactavish in supplying the Canadian Rifles with food underlined the necessity for a farm. Grasshoppers had destroyed the crops, forcing the settlers to keep the meager returns of their farms for their own subsistence. It would therefore be necessary for the Company to import flour and cattle from the United States.38 But a more permanent solution was under way: "Sir George Simpson has given me instruction to commence farming operations at Lower Fort Garry and in consequence between 40 and 50 acres have already been ploughed up and as much more will probably be so before winter sets in, I have also bought up all the grain and cattle which I could induce the Settlers to sell but they are evidently unwilling to part with provisions of any Kind."39 On the same day he wrote in detail to Simpson reporting his progress and requesting additional supplies: In obedience with your instructions between 40 & 50 acres of land have been ploughed up at the Lower Fort and it is hoped that as much more will yet be so before winter, every exertion will be used to procure fencing during winter so as to get the whole under crop next season as the farm harvests procurred in the Settlement is not only expensive but very unsatisfactory, . . .I would also beg leave to suggest that six Farm Servants should be engaged in Orkney and sent out next season and if one or two of them were accompanied by their wives they would be useful as a considerable quantity of dairy produce might be made at the Lower Fort Farm during the past summer no produce of this description has been obtained from the Settlers.40
In his reply, Simpson urged Mactavish to work ahead on the farm. Although he doubted that he would be able to obtain the farm labourers, his indent for harness, ploughs, and other goods was forwarded to England.41 In the mail of the following spring, the Governor and Committee gave their approval for the establishing of the farm and reported that they had directed that Mactavish's indent be filled.42
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