 |
 |
||||||||||
|
|
Canadian Historic Sites: Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History No. 11
by Carol Whitfield The BattleHigh on a hill in Queenston stands a monument of a British general, Isaac Brock, the president of Upper Canada from 9 October 1811 to 13 October 1812.1 It was erected by the colonists on the battlefield where he died trying to halt an American attack. The Battle of Queenston Heights was the first battle of the War of 1812. It was preceded by a minor incident at Michilimackinac and a hasty surrender at Detroit, but at Queenston men died in an effort to stop an invading army which, had it been successful, would probably have gone on to capture Upper Canada because Brock's successors did not have his acumen, talent for leadership and determination. Shortly after the Americans declared war on Great Britain on 18 June 1812, the British government conditionally withdrew the Orders in Council, which were the ostensible cause for the declaration of war. Hoping that President Madison would rescind his decision to fight, Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost, the governor in chief of Upper and Lower Canada, approached Major General Henry Dearborn, commander of the American Northern Department, with a proposal for a temporary armistice. Until President Madison had time to reconsider his position, opposing commanders along the international border signed tentative armistices: the armistice on the Niagara frontier extended from 20 August 1812 to 4 September 1812, when Madison refused to ratify it.2
However, an attack by the Americans along the Niagara River had been contemplated earlier in the summer of 1812. On 15 August, the American secretary of war, Eustis, wrote to his subordinate, General Dearborn,
Despite this attitude of his superiors, the American general on the Niagara frontier, Stephen Van Rensselaer, hesitated to attack, claiming his force was too small. Writing to Tompkins, the governor of New York and the man who had appointed him, Van Rensselaer worried, "At present we rest upon the armistice, but should hostilities be recommenced I must immediately change my position. I receive no reinforcements of men, no ordnance or munitions of war."4 The Americans used the armistice to bring supplies and cannon by water from Oswego to Van Rensselaer's forces on the Niagara River: six regiments of regular infantry, five regiments of militia, a battalion of rifles and several batteries of artillery arrived at the Niagara frontier.5 Nevertheless Van Rensselaer still delayed attacking after the armistice was cancelled. He did call a council of war to discuss plans for a simultaneous invasion at Fort George and Queenston but General Smyth, who commanded the American forces at Buffalo, seemed to resent having anything to do with a militia officer and ignored the invitation.6 This lack of co-operation should have ended the proposed invasion, but on the ninth of October, Lieutenant Elliot captured two British brigs, the Caledonia and Detroit, which were anchored off Fort Erie. Before nightfall the Americans burned the Detroit to foil a British attempt to recapture her.7 This partial success so raised the desire of the American militia for a fight that Van Rensselaer claimed in a letter to Dearborn after the Battle of Queenston Heights:
Lieutenant Colonel Evans and Major Merritt both relate incidents of Americans firing their muskets at the British shore, an indication of the Americans' impatience for battle.9 Hence Van Rensselaer altered his plans and decided to attack just at Queenston. An attempt was made during the early hours of 11 October. Van Rensselaer entrusted the first crossing to Lieutenant Sim who, upon reaching the British shore slightly below the proposed landing place, abandoned the boat containing the oars of most of the other boats and disappeared. This apparent desertion and a heavy rainstorm ended the invasion for that day.10 Brock, it appears, was aware of this abortive attempt, for that day he wrote to Sir George Prevost that there had been an attempt "to carry off the guard over the store at Queenston."11 The drenching they had received apparently had not dampened the clamor of the American forces for action. Therefore, on the evening of the twelfth, forces from the surrounding areas began marching to Lewiston by the back roads. Lieutenant Colonel Stranahan's force was the first to leave Niagara Falls, followed by those of Mead and Lieutenant Colonel Blan.12
About three o'clock on the morning of 13 October 1812, the Americans began crossing the Niagara River to attack Queenston. The invading force was divided into two parts: 300 militia of the 18th Regiment under the command of Colonel Solomon Van Rensselaer, Stephen's cousin and aide-de-camp, and an equal number of regulars of the 13th Regiment led by Lieutenant Colonel Chrystie, crossed from Lewiston in approximately 12 boats, each carrying 25 men.14 Some of the boats ferrying part of Chrystie's troops drifted too far downstream and returned to the American shore before joining Van Rensselaer's force at the landing at Queenston.15 The landing occurred at the foot of the portage road where the government wharf and several private wharves were located.16 The Light and Grenadier companies of the 49th Regiment and the companies of Captains Chisholm and Hall of the York militia, in all 300 men,17 opposed the landing from their station in Queenston. Apparently their fire was effective, for Colonel Van Rensselaer was wounded, as were all of his commissioned officers who were not killed outright. Accordingly his force took cover under the edge of the hill, where the British could not fire down upon them. The accounts suggest that confusion at the embarkation point decreased the number of reinforcements which reached Colonel Van Rensselaer at this time. The forces led by Lieutenant Colonel Fenwick and Lieutenant Phelps of the 13th Regiment, Lieutenant Clark of the 23rd Regiment, Lieutenant Bailey of the 3rd Artillery, and Lieutenant Turner of the 13th Infantry, who did try to assist Van Rensselaer, landed at Hamilton's Cove, where they were immediately seized by some militia and a few regulars of the 49th Regiment. These prisoners were marched off, under guard, to Fort George, seven miles away at Niagara.18
American reinforcements were slightly hampered by the fire of the British guns located in the Queenston area. One 24-pounder, en barbette, was located at Vrooman's Battery, one mile north of Queenston. The British field artillery at Queenston amounted to two 3-pounders, known as "grasshoppers." A second large cannon, an 18-pounder, was located in a redan battery half way up the mountain (Fig. 1). From this location it could fire upon the American battery, Fort Gray, which was directly opposite, or upon the river, or the village of Queenston beneath it. Fort Gray was armed with two 18-pounders and two 6-pounders under the direction of Major Lovett. Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott of the 2nd American Artillery positioned the two 6-pounders, which he had brought from Niagara Falls, on the Lewiston shore.19 Brock, who was sleeping at his headquarters at Fort George, was awakened by the fire of these batteries. He immediately set out for Queenston to ascertain whether or not this was the real American assault or just a feint to cover an attack upon Fort George from the opposing Fort Niagara. On the way he passed Lieutenant Jarvis, who had been dispatched to inform him of the attack. This fact suggests that in their haste the commanders at Queenston forgot to use Brock's elaborate system of beacons and telegraphs, which stretched from Sugar Loaf and Point Albino to Queenston and inland to Pelham Heights.20 Brock paused briefly on his way to Queenston to order Captain Cameron's and Captain Heward's detachments of the 3rd York militia, who were stationed at Brown's Point Battery, to follow him.21 It seems likely that here, if anywhere, Brock shouted the famous order "Push on the brave York Volunteers!" Upon reaching Queenston he went directly to the redan battery where he could get a better view of the battle. Seeing the difficulties that Captain Dennis's Grenadier Company was having in resisting the invaders, Brock ordered most of Captain Williams' Light Company, which was posted on the heights, to descend and assist them.22 He also noted the size of the force gathered at Lewiston to embark, and realized that the attack upon Queenston was the real assault. Brock, therefore, dispatched orders to Fort George and Chippawa for reinforcements and artillery to advance to Queenston.
Meanwhile one of Colonel Van Rensselaer's officers suggested a way by which the Americans could move from the landing where they were pinned down by the British fire. Accordingly, about 60 Americans, including Captains Wool and Ogilvie, Lieutenants Kearney, Hugouin, Carr and Simmons of the 43rd Regiment, Lieutenants Ganesvoort and Randolph of the Light Artillery, and Major Lush of the militia, began edging their way south along the river, keeping under the cover of the escarpment so their movement was not detected (Fig. 1). They eased along the river's edge until they came to a narrow path which led to the top of the escarpment. The exact location of this path is unknown but apparently it was to the right of the redan battery, for this flanking movement was not spotted. The Americans gained the heights unopposed because Brock, who had been informed the path could not be scaled, had not posted a guard.24 As soon as the American force was collected on the heights, in the approximate location of the present Queenston Heights Restaurant, they cheered and charged down upon the small British force in the redan battery. Brock heard the attackers as he turned to give directions to the bombardier of Captain Williams' Light Company of the 49th Regiment. The British just had time to spike the gun before fleeing to the village below (Fig. 1).25 At this time, the Americans controlled the landing area and the escarpment while the British had possession of the rest of the village. Recognizing that the best chance to dislodge the Americans from their position was to move before they had a chance to organize or consolidate, Brock quickly assembled all available troops to try to retake the redan, gathering them behind the stone fence at the southern edge of the village. At a signal from the major general, they jumped the wall and started up toward the redan on the American left. Brock was in the forefront. As he approached the crest of the redan, a marksman stepped out from behind a tree and fired at the leader in his distinctive uniform and flowing scarf, a gift from the admiring Tecumseh. Brock died immediately (Fig. 1). While his followers gathered round his corpse, one of the soldiers fell dead across his body, which was then taken back to Queenston and secreted in a house.26 Brock's death, therefore, occurred somewhere to the southeast of the location of a marker in Queenston which proclaims that near this spot he was killed.
Lieutenant Colonel John Macdonell, Brock's provincial aide-de-camp, had followed Brock to Queenston, and now assembled a force of less than 100 men of the 49th Regiment and Captain Cameron's company of the 3rd York militia to attack the redan. Various reports indicate that his force gained the redan, nearly captured the gun, and were firing upon the 300 Americans, who were being slowly driven back up the mountain.28 It seemed at this point that the British had a chance of recovering the redan battery. Unfortunately two incidents intervened before the British could secure their position. The American commander, Wool, was reinforced and the British commander, Macdonell, was mortally wounded by a bullet in the back. Captain Williams of the 49th was also wounded and the small British force retreated into the village. A few of the wounded were taken prisoner.29 Probably the American reinforcements, which arrived at the opportune moment, consisted of detachments under Captains Gibson, McChesney, and Lawrence, and Colonels Mead, Stranahan, and Allen.30 The British retreated to Hamilton's house, a large stone building encircled by a stone fence. Early in the afternoon Captain Holcroft of the Royal Artillery brought up a howitzer from Fort George and stationed it in Hamilton's courtyard. Here the British force was pinned down after Lieutenants Ganesvoort and Randolph, assisted by a detachment of American artillery, drilled the captured redan gun and turned it upon the village.31 Nevertheless, Captain Holcroft, ably assisted by the wounded Alexander Hamilton, a member of the Niagara Dragoons and a resident of Queenston, and by part of Major Merritt's company of Niagara Dragoons, began to fire upon the enemy boats crossing from Lewiston. Elsewhere Lieutenant Crowther of the 41st set up two small guns, presumably the grasshoppers. The combined fire was so effective that the crossing, which had previously been relatively easy, was now so hazardous that few Americans would even attempt to cross. Their commander later blamed his failure to maintain his position in Queenston on the fact that the American militia would not cross the river.32 Before Holcroft's guns were brought into play, General Van Rensselaer, on the advice of Lieutenant Colonel Chrystie, who had crossed back to the American side to advise the general of the situation, ordered one light 6-pounder and its travelling carriage to be taken across.33 He also ordered Lieutenant Totten of the Engineers to fortify the American position at Queenston. There is no evidence that any fortifications were erected either in the redan battery or on the mountain top. Lieutenant Colonel Chrystie blamed the failure to fortify the American position on the fact that no entrenching tools were forwarded to Lieutenant Totten. Once these orders were given, General Van Rensselaer crossed over to assume personal command, accompanied by detachments of the 6th, 13th and 23rd Infantry under Lieutenant Colonel Chrystie and Major Mullany as well as by a small detachment of militia under Brigadier General Wadsworth. Captain Wool was ordered to return to Lewiston to have his wounds dressed.34 Thus the position at Queenston was at a standstill. Once Holcroft had set up his guns, few Americans could cross to reinforce their comrades because Holcroft's guns were sinking a number of boats. On the other hand, the British could not readily move from the remains of Hamilton's house because the Americans had turned the redan gun upon them.
British reinforcements, which would ultimately break the deadlock, were on the way. As soon as Brock had recognized that the assault at Queenston was not a feint but the primary attack, he had dispatched orders for reinforcements from Fort George and Chippawa. Brock's successor, Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe, advanced on the road to Queenston with a large detachment of the 41st Regiment commanded by Captain Derenzy; approximately 120 Indians led by Captain John Norton and John Brant; Captain James Crook's and Captain John McEwen's companies of the 1st Lincoln; Captain Abraham Nelles' company of the 4th Lincoln led by Lieutenant Butler; Captain W. Crook's company of the 4th Lincoln; Captains Hall's, Curand's and Applegarth's companies of the 5th Lincoln; Captain Thomas Selby's company of the 1st York led by Lieutenant Vanderburgh and a Captain Burns; plus Major Merritt's company of Niagara Dragoons, and a coloured company led by Captain Runchey.36 Instead of entering the village and attempting to recover the redan in the way that had been unsuccessful twice previously, Sheaffe veered off to the west at Durham's farm, after ordering all but a skeleton force from Queenston to join him.37 This movement was very frustrating to the American forces who had watched the British reinforcements approach Queenston and had planned to scatter them with cannon fire from Fort Gray. Sheaffe's flanking movement, however, took his force out of range and brought it to a cleft where the escarpment could be scaled much more easily. This cleft, known as "Sheaffe's pass," is now marked by a sign along the side of the road to St. David. The Indians, under Captain Norton and John Brant, scaled the escarpment more quickly than the British regulars and militia, who were much more encumbered by their equipment and who had to form in line once they attained the heights. The Indians moved quickly toward the river. They drove in a picket of American militia who, when routed, carried their panic back to the main body of Americans. Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott, to whom Brigadier General Wadsworth of the militia had given the command, prevented a general rout by assembling a small force and driving the Indians back into the woods.38 The Americans did not pursue the Indians but returned to the cleared section on the brow of the escarpment around the site of what is now Fort Drummond, where they were at less of a disadvantage.39 The accounts differ as to the number of times the Indians charged and were driven back. It appears, however, that the Indian attacks, although unsuccessful in driving the Americans from the heights, further discouraged any reinforcements from crossing over. The fear of the American militia increased once it became known that Indians were among the British forces. "But the name of Indian, or the sight of the wounded, or the devil, or something else petrified them. Not a regiment, not a company, scarcely a man would go."40 General Sheaffe's forces joined the Indians in the edge of the woods but did not attack until the detachment from Chippawa arrived. This consisted of Captain Bullock's company of the 41st Regiment and Captain R. Hamilton's and Captain Row's flank companies of the 2nd Lincoln militia.41 They had marched from Chippawa along the portage road, which was set back from the edge of the Niagara gorge. As it neared Queenston, the portage road veered toward the river (Fig. 1). When this detachment joined Sheaffe's force, the British line of battle from right to left consisted of the detachment from Chippawa along the road, a party of militia, the 49th Regiment in the centre, another party of militia from Fort George, the Light Company of the 41st Regiment and the Indians on the extreme left at the edge of the escarpment. Captain Hall's company was held in reserve.
The attack began on the left flank. Lieutenant McIntyre led some of the 41st, a detachment of militia, including Captain Runchey's coloured company and the Indians, in a volley followed by a bayonet charge which drove in the American right. The rest of the line was then ordered to front and attack. Finally the militia charged.43 The opposing American line was drawn up with the village in the rear, the river on their left and the woods on the edge of the escarpment on their right (Fig. 1). A volunteer party of militia and regulars under Lieutenant Smith was deployed in these woods.44 Meanwhile General Van Rensselaer, who had crossed back over to Lewiston to try and persuade the lagging militia to join their comrades, witnessed the British flanking movement and sent General Wadsworth a note recommending retreat and promising to cover a retreat with the guns at Fort Gray and to send all the boats he could muster. The note, however, left Wadsworth discretionary powers to stand and fight if he felt he had a chance.45 This left Wadsworth in a quandary so he called a council of war of his fellow officers, which did not reach a decision.46 Their situation was desperate. Instead of receiving reinforcements, the men were deserting; some had even clambered into the boat that carried General Van Rensselaer back to Lewiston. There were very few rounds of ammunition left for the one small gun. Retreat, the only viable manoeuvre, would be difficult with troops as untrained, undisciplined, and frightened, as the American militia were. Nevertheless General Wadsworth ordered a retreat, but at the same time (approximately 3:00 P.M.) General Sheaffe ordered the final attack and the British began advancing, driving the Americans back from their position behind a stone fence toward the edge of the cliff.47 Some in their fear leaped off, while others raced down in the hope of finding a boat to carry them back to Lewiston.48 Since General Van Rensselaer had not sent any boats, presumably because the boatmen had disappeared, many tried to hide along the precipice where the Indians ferreted them out later. The fighting lasted for half an hour before Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott raised a handkerchief on the tip of his sword and Brigadier General Wadsworth presented his sword to Sheaffe.49 The fighting of the thirteenth of October was not limited to the Queenston area: incidents also occurred at Fort George and Fort Erie. When Brock galloped out of Fort George on his horse, Alfred, he left instructions for General Sheaffe to start bombarding the opposing Fort Niagara. This duty was at first entrusted to Captain Holcroft who, however, was short of artillerymen. He gathered a few from the militia to assist him and applied for men and gunpowder to a Captain Richardson, who had brought a vessel into Niagara harbour. The gunpowder was particularly useful as some of the supply at Fort George had been in the magazine since the American Revolution and did not carry the shot across the river when fired.50 Shortly after Major General Sheaffe and Captain Holcroft left for Queenston, Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Evans succeeded in silencing the guns at Fort Niagara. Evans was assisted by Captain Vigoureux of the Royal Engineers, Colonel Claus and Captains Powell and Cameron of the 3rd Lincoln and 3rd York respectively. When the British fire began and a 12-pounder at Fort Niagara burst, the American commander, Captain Leonard, decided to abandon it. The Americans later returned to the fort and poured red-hot shot upon Fort George and the town of Niagara. The court house and the jail were gutted. Fortunately the prisoners in the jail had been safely moved to the blockhouse. The Americans also set fire to the magazine which contained 800 barrels of powder. Quick action by some soldiers extinguished this fire. The American battery was finally silenced.51 South of the falls it was the British who kept the Americans busy dousing fires. As soon as he learned of the fighting at Queenston, Lieutenant Colonel Myers, the Deputy Quartermaster General and commanding officer at Fort Erie, began firing upon the Americans at Black Rock. Spotting the Americans moving some gunpowder, the British turned their guns upon the magazine, and bombardier Walker of the Royal Artillery succeeded in blowing it up: a number of persons died in the explosion. The British also blew up the recently captured Caledonia. Finally Myers' detachment of the 49th Regiment under Major Ormsby, assisted by militia officers Captain Kirby and Lieutenant Bryson, silenced the guns at Black Rock.52 Thus the day ended successfully for the British. They had taken 925 prisoners including one brigadier general, one aide-de-camp, 5 lieutenant colonels, 3 majors, 19 captains and 32 lieutenants. The British estimated the American loss in killed, drowned and wounded at 500,53 while General Van Rensselaer wrote that, "the slaughter of our troops must have been very considerable."54 The British estimate is probably too high. The Americans also lost an iron 6-pounder with its travelling carriage and 435 French carbine muskets, plus a stand of New York militia colours.55 On the other hand, the British losses were slight: 14 dead, 77 wounded and 21 missing. Unfortunately the British losses included Major General Isaac Brock, a soldier of considerable resolution and tenacity. Some of the American accounts indicate that they felt their heavy losses were partially compensated by Brock's death.56 Some have claimed that Brock would never have agreed to the armistice that Sheaffe signed with General Van Rensselaer after the battle of Queenston Heights. These writers feel that Brock would have seized the opportunity to cross the border, capture Fort Niagara and banish the Stars and Stripes from the Niagara frontier. Had he lived, this is probably what Brock would have wanted to do. In a letter to his brothers, he had expressed his feelings on this point:
Nevertheless, given repeated instructions from Prevost not to attack, Brock would probably have foreborne further action. Prevost was aware not only of the limited resources of Great Britain for an offensive war but also of the possibility that an attack would unite divided American public opinion behind the war effort. He therefore forbade offensive measures and even went so far as to mildly censure Brock for his activities on the Detroit frontier.58 Had Prevost been commander of Upper Canada, the situation at the end of 1812 would probably have been radically different.
The Battle of Queenston Heights was the decisive point. If the Americans had succeeded or if the British forces had fallen apart after Brock's death, Upper Canada would probably have been overthrown.
|
||||||||
|
|
|
||||||
