Canadian Historic Sites: Occasional Papers in Archaeology and History No. 26
The Old Fort Point Site: Fort Wedderburn II?
by Karlis Karklins
Introduction
Historical Background
Although the Canadian fur trade had been expanding westward from its
inception, the period of major English expansion northwest of the Great
Lakes began in the 1770s (Smythe 1968: 10, 17). During this period, the
Montreal pedlars began turning their attention to the country that lay
to the north of the Saskatchewan River. The Frobisher brothers were the
first to enter the area and had penetrated as far as
Ile-à-la-Crosse by 1776 (Smythe 1968: 16). Their profitable
ventures proved that the area was rich in furs, and as a result other
traders followed shortly thereafter.
One of the first to exploit the new territory was Peter Pond who, in
1778, established Pond's Fort on the Athabasca River, about 30 to 40
miles from its mouth. Operating as a "free trader" for the first few
years, Pond became a partner in the newly formed North West Company in
1785 which thereby gained the only post in Athabasca (Chalmers 1974:
51). Pond's Fort functioned for another three years and was then
abandoned for a site on Lake Athabasca since the old establishment was
not in a suitable location either as a base for the exploration of the
country to the north and west of the lake or to adequately trade with
the Indians of the region. Further, it lacked the resources to support
an establishment large enough to meet the future requirements of the
Athabasca area (Smythe 1968: 249).
The new post, Fort Chipewyan I, was constructed in 1788 by Roderick
Mackenzie on a small peninsula on the south shore of Lake Athabasca,
about 6 miles to the east of the Athabasca River delta. This location
was in the centre of excellent fisheries and near the mouths of the
Athabasca, Slave and Peace rivers and at the hub of a vast network of
water routes. It was also about as far west as a post could be placed
and still allow canoes from the fort to rendezvous at Grand Portage in
the summer, exchange furs for supplies and return to the north before
the rivers and lakes froze over (Chalmers 1971: 8).
Although relatively little is known about this post, it was a
sizeable operation, being deemed "the compleatest Inland House I have
seen in the Country" and "the Grand Magazine of the Athapiscow Country"
by Philip Turnor who visited the site in 1791-92 (Tyrrell 1934: 398).
During the 12 years of its existence, Fort Chipewyan I served as company
headquarters and as the chief trading establishment in Athabasca, as
well as a base of operations for the exploration of the northwest and
the subsequent expansion of the North West Company into the explored
regions. The fort was also a redistribution centre for furs coming from
and supplies going to the other posts in the district.
In the late 1790s, the importance of Fort Chipewyan I began to
decline. The tremendous expansion of the Athabasca Department during
this period was at the root of the difficulty (Smythe 1968: 250). With
posts westward along the Peace River and north on the Mackenzie
diverting some of the concern's attention, Fort Chipewyan suffered.
Consequently around 1800, the post was relocated on the lake's northwest
shore in the immediate vicinity of the present settlement of Fort
Chipewyan, Alberta. This locale was free of ice sooner than the old
site, thereby allowing the earlier departure of the traders in the
spring. It was also much closer to the Slave and Peace rivers, as well
as nearer to the major fur suppliers, the Chipewyans, whose territory
lay to the east and north of the lake.
The move did not end the post's troubles however. At about the same
time that Fort Chipewyan was relocated, Alexander Mackenzie's XY Company
established a post in the immediate vicinity (Smythe and Chism 1969:
89). Further competition in the form of the Hudson's Bay Company
appeared in 1802, when Peter Fidler established Nottingham House on
English Island about two miles from Fort Chipewyan II. Nevertheless, the
competition was short-lived. By 1806, the North West Company had
absorbed Mackenzie's concern and driven the Hudson's Bay Company from
the area (Smythe 1968: 246, 248). With the two companies out of the way,
the Nor'Westers once again had a monopoly in the Athabasca region.
It was not until 1815 that the Hudson's Bay Company reentered
Athabasca to challenge the North West Company's hold on the area once
again. In that year John Clarke, a former Nor'Wester, built Fort
Wedderburn on Potato Island opposite Fort Chipewyan. This post was
occupied until October of 1817, when it was decided that a residence on
the island would not be feasible that winter because of a lack of dogs
to haul fish to the fort from the outlying fisheries (Krause 1972: 28).
Temporary headquarters (Fort Wedderburn II) were, therefore, erected on
Old Fort Point which had always been considered an excellent fishery.
However, the new location did not prove to be any better than the old
one had been; by 25 March 1818, the Hudson's Bay Company men were back
on Potato Island (Krause 1972: 29).
Fort Wedderburn continued in existence until 1821, when the union of
the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company brought an end to
the bitter rivalry between the two establishments. Fort Wedderburn was
subsequently abandoned and Fort Chipewyan II became the Hudson's Bay
Company's district headquarters and principal northern depot for western
Canada.
Although the importance of Fort Chipewyan II declined gradually after
1821 due to the depletion of the fur resources of the area, it remained
the main trading post in the Athabasca District for over a century
(Smythe 1968: 247); however, as the fur trade in the district
diminished, the need for the post diminished as well. Hence, in 1939-40,
the buildings at the site were either torn down or moved to new
locations to serve as storage facilities and a modern Hudson's Bay
Company store was erected in the town that had grown up around the post
over the years. Now only a stone cairn marks the site of the post that
was once called the "Emporium of the North."
Geographical Setting
The site discussed in this report is located on Old Fort Point, a
small peninsula at the west end of Lake Athabasca in the extreme
northeast corner of Alberta (Fig. 1). The point is approximately 21
miles to the east-southeast of Fort Chipewyan, the nearest community, at
latitude 58° 39' N. and longitude 110° 36' W.
1 Map of the Old Fort Point area showing site location and vegetation
zones. Forest density: A, sparsely stocked; B, medium
stocked. Tree height: 1, up to 31 ft.; 2, 31 to 60 ft.;
3, 61 to 80 ft. Vegetation type: D, deciduous trees;
G, treed grassland; M, graass marsh; P, pine;
S, white spruce.
(Drawing by S. Epps.)
(Click on image for a PDF version.)
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The peninsula, approximately 0.75 miles wide and 1.75 miles long,
juts northwest from the south shore of the lake approximately 6 miles to
the east of the Athabasca River delta. A small, sheltered bay is located
west of the point and Old Fort Bay, which is larger, is to the east.
The land at the extreme northwest tip of the peninsula is very low
and moist; dry land is just slightly above the level of the beach at an
elevation of 701.97 ft. ASL (Canadian Engineering Services, Ltd., Bench
Mark 36). From here, the land rises gradually toward the mainland,
achieving an altitude of over 900 ft. ASL in a prominence about 0.75
miles east of the bench mark. The land is below 800 ft. ASL elsewhere on
the peninsula.
The Old Fort Point site is approximately 600 ft. east of BM 36, at an
estimated elevation of 718 ft. ASL. It is on the crest of a gradual
slope up from the west and 25 ft. to the south of the edge of a
15-ft-high steep bluff that forms a portion of the north side of the
point (Fig. 2). The land continues to increase in elevation east of the
site, while it slopes down toward a marsh to the southeast.
Although the bluff is stable adjacent to the site — being
overgrown with moss and trees — several old, narrow, slumped
terraces indicate that erosion has taken place at some time in the past.
The extent of erosional activity and its effect on the site, if any, are
not known. A wide cobblestone beach extends to within 7 ft. of the
bluff's base.
Old Fort Point is situated in the southern fringe of the permafrost
region at the transition between the Upper Mackenzie and the Athabasca
South sections of the Boreal Forest Region of Canada (Rowe 1972: 44-5,
154). In the Upper Mackenzie Section, west of Old Fort Bay, white spruce
(Picea glauca [Moench] Voss) and balsam poplar (Populus
balsamifera L.) constitute the main forest cover on the alluvial
flats bordering the rivers. Few other species occur although balsam fir
(Abies balsamea [L.] Mill.) and white and Alaska birch (Betula
papyrifera Marsh. and B. neoalaskana Sarg.) are prominent
south of Lake Athabasca. On the benches above the flood plains an
entirely different forest pattern exists. Here jack and lodgepole pine
(Pinus banksiana Lamb. and P. contorta Dougl.), trembling
aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.), black spruce (Picea
mariana [Mill.] B.S.P.) and tamarack (Larix laricina [Du Roi]
K. Koch) predominate, while white spruce occurs only in minor quantities
(Rowe 1972: 45). The soil cover in the section typically consists of
deep deposits of glacial tills or more recently deposited lacustrine and
alluvial materials overlying Devonian and Cretaceous bedrock. Gray
luvisols and eutric brunisols are developed on well-drained sites in the
Athabasca area, although immature profiles are more usual in alluvium
(Rowe 1972: 45).
The Athabasca South Section east of Old Fort Bay is characterized by
jack pine, black spruce and tamarack. White spruce, trembling aspen and
balsam poplar are uncommon except along river valleys and lake shores
where there is good growth. The sandy soils are derived from the
underlying sandstones (probably late Precambrian) by glacial action.
Humo-ferric podzols, gleysols and organic (peat) soils are present (Rowe
1972: 44).
On Old Fort Point itself, the forest cover is of medium density and
consists of white spruce, jack pine, trembling aspen, balsam poplar,
white birch and alder (Alnus sp.). Shrubs are represented by the
common juniper (Juniperus communis L.), saskatoonberry
(Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.) and choke cherry (Prunus
virginiana L.). Wild raspberries (Rubus sp.) and strawberries
(Fragaria sp.) occur in scattered patches, and there are several
species of flowers, including wild roses (Rosa sp.). Grass and
moss grow in areas not choked with the omnipresent juniper bush. Willows
(Salix sp.) and horse tails (Equisetum sp.) are common
along the beach.
In the vicinity of the site, the dominant growth on lower ground (to
the west of the site) is trembling aspen, white birch and juniper. To
the east, on higher ground, the dominant types are white spruce and
birch with scattered jack pine. The site is located at an elevation
where white spruce and jack pine first appear, and was probably chosen
for a building location so it would be adjacent to a source of good
timber.
The soils are, for the most part, podzols consisting of Pleistocene
and post-glacial sediments and are characterized by a distinct, leached,
strongly acidic whitish or grayish Ae horizon underlain by a reddish Bf
horizon in which accumulate oxides of iron and aluminum (Lindsay et al.
1962: 30, 33; Rowe 1972:164). The soil cover rests on Precambrian
Athabasca Sandstone which forms a part of the Precambrian Shield
(Lindsay et al. 1962: 33).
The climate in the Athabasca Region is classified as dry subhumid
(Rowe 1972:155). The average annual rainfall is 7.6 inches while the
average annual snowfall is 44 inches. Average rainfall and snowfall are
highest in July (1.8 inches) and November (9.1 inches) respectively
(Canada. Department of Transport. Meteorological Division 1954:
20-21).
The annual mean temperature in the area is -6.7°C. January is the
coldest month with an average daily mean temperature of -23.9°C. The
warmest month is July with an average daily mean temperature of
17.2°C. From November to April, the average daily mean temperature
is below 0°C (Canada. Department of Transport. Meteorological
Division 1954: 15).
The prevailing wind in the vicinity of Old Fort Point is from the
north and is frequently quite strong since there is nothing to break its
force as it sweeps across the lake. Subsequently, the lake is usually
choppy along the south shore and often unnavigable by small boats,
swells over five feet in height not being uncommon. The area is also
subject to sudden storms which can come up in a matter of minutes. On
one occasion during the 1971 field season, the author witnessed the
approach of a storm front from the northwest wherein the wind speed
changed from perfect calm to an estimated 40 to 50 miles per hour in
less than 15 minutes. Similar occurrences were also recounted by several
local residents.
Archaeological Techniques
When the archaeological field party arrived, the Old Fort Point site
was marked by eight depressions and three probable fireplace mounds
which occupied an area approximately 45 ft. square. The area was
overgrown with a dense stand of vegetation and had not been previously
disturbed.
After the site had been cleared, three test trenches were dug in what
appeared to be strategic areas to recover a sample of artifacts which
might shed light on the date and identity of the site as well as to
obtain information concerning the orientation and size of the structure
or structures involved. When this had been accomplished, the site was
divided into horizontal units (Fig. 2) which would facilitate the
recording of uncovered features and the assignment of artifacts to
specific sections of the site for interpretative purposes.
2 Contour map of the Old Fort Point site showing the excavation units.
The solid black areas represent the remnants of building walls while the
dashed lines indicate where walls once existed. The stippled areas
denote fireplaces.
(Drawing by E. Lee.)
(Click on image for a PDF version.)
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Each horizontal unit was subsequently excavated stratigraphically in
order to segregate recovered artifacts and structural components to
determine if the site had been occupied more than once. Due to the
shallowness of the overburden, the digging was performed using hand
tools such as trowels, grapefruit knives and brushes from the start so
that the recovery of cultural objects, faunal remains and structural
features would be as complete as possible. To further facilitate the
achievement of this objective, all flooring was removed after being
recorded and the areas beneath were excavated to sterile subsoil. In
addition, when small objects like beads and lead shot were encountered,
the soil in their immediate vicinity was screened through both 1/16-inch
and 1/4-inch hardware cloth to ensure the recovery of as many small
items as possible. Screening of the fill at other times was not
performed since the paucity of small objects during several trial
periods when all soil was screened indicated that constant screening was
not warranted.
During excavation, all features and stratigraphic layers were
recorded as they were uncovered so no information would be lost. To
facilitate the comparison of the features at the Old Fort Point site
with those described in historical documents and other site reports, all
measurements were recorded in feet and tenths of feet.
After the core area of the site (a single, large building) had been
excavated, a trench was dug perpendicular to each side of the area in an
effort to locate other features (Fig. 2). No evidence of any additional
structures or occupation areas was uncovered in any of the trenches. The
completion of these trenches marked the end of the project and the site
was backfilled to return the area to as natural a state as possible.
Stratigraphy
Five major stratigraphic layers and numerous localized zones were
encountered at the Old Fort Point site. The major layers were present in
all or most of the excavation units; the localized zones were spatially
restricted.
Layer 1
Moss and decaying vegetal material (primarily juniper needles)
comprised the uppermost layer which was 0.01 ft. to 0.5 ft. thick (0.14
ft. average). This detritus was deposited after the site fell into ruin
and was overgrown with vegetation.
Layer 2
Directly below layer 1 was a stratum of yellowish red and white sand
which contained scattered charcoal, artifacts and lenses of both dark
brown sandy clay and reddish brown sandy clay. This material was up to
1.65 ft. thick, averaging 0.48 ft., and originally covered the roof of
the solitary building at the site.
Layer 3
Under the sand was a discontinuous layer of dark brown sandy clay
which contained small lenses of sand, charcoal flecks, fish remains,
wood chips and birch bark. This stratum was up to 0.35 ft. thick, with
an average of 0.22 ft., and constituted the material used to chink the
roof of the building. This and the previous layer tapered out at a
distance which varied from 4.5 ft. to 9.5 ft. to the north, east and
south of the structure. To the west, where the ground sloped noticeably
and erosion had washed the material downhill, the sand and clay
terminated 18 ft. from the building.
Layer 4
The fourth layer was a charcoal deposit up to 0.3 ft. thick (0.07 ft.
average) which covered the sterile subsoil in the immediate vicinity of
the building, and apparently represents overgrowth burned off prior to
the construction of the structure. The charcoal tapered to a distance of
15 ft. to 25 ft. from the building on all sides, suggesting that an area
only slightly larger than the structure was thoroughly cleared.
Layer 5
Layer 5 was the undisturbed soil underlying the site, consisting of
well-drained, white sand overlying yellowish red sand which rests on
fine to coarse gravel. No clay was encountered, indicating that the clay
used to chink the building was obtained elsewhere on the peninsula.
The localized zones consist of pit fill and fireplace ash, and
are described in the 'Description of Features' portion of this
report.
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